Positivsymptome wie Wahn und Halluzinationen stellen definierende Symptome einer (schizophrenen) Psychose dar. In dieser Übersichtsarbeit wird ein 2-stufiges heuristisches Modell für die Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung psychotischer Positivsymptome vorgelegt. Im Kern der Theorie steht die Hypothese, dass von Psychose betroffene Menschen eine erniedrigte Entscheidungsschwelle aufweisen, die zu einer frühzeitigen Annahme von Hypothesen führt (liberale Akzeptanz). Im Unterschied zu nichtpsychotischen Personen ist die Konfidenz in falsche Urteile bei Betroffenen, als Folge dieser liberalen Akzeptanz, erhöht. Postuliert werden 2 Stufen der Wahnentwicklung. Auf Stufe 1 (Wahnentstehung) ist die subjektive Wahrscheinlichkeit für akzeptierte Hypothesen bei Menschen mit Psychose zunächst vergleichsweise gering. Wahnhafte Ideen sind in diesem Stadium häufig nicht voll entfaltet bzw. fragil und können zwischen 2 sich gegenseitig ausschließenden Ansichten oszillieren («doppelte Buchführung»). Im Zuge der 2. Stufe (Überzeugung, Aufrechterhaltung) verfestigen sich die flüchtigen wahnhaften Ideen zu falschen Überzeugungen aufgrund eines 2-gliedrigen Konsolidierungsprozesses - indem einerseits Gegenbeweise ignoriert und andererseits Belege zugunsten der Leithypothese einen Verarbeitungsvorteil erhalten (Bestätigungstendenz). Alternative Hypothesen rücken in den Hintergrund. Aufrechterhaltend für eine Wahnidee sind vielfältige psychologische Faktoren und Motive, wie die Kongruenz des Wahns mit dem emotionalen Befinden, persönliche Bedeutsamkeit und die temporäre Steigerung des Selbstwertgefühls sowie das Spannen eines Erklärungsrahmens für ein breites Spektrum von Beschwerden zur Reduktion kognitiver Dissonanz. Aus unserer Sicht können viele Formen von Halluzinationen und Erstrangsymptomen (z.B. Gedankeneingebung) ebenfalls durch liberale Akzeptanz erklärt werden. Diese Symptome basieren unseres Erachtens nicht zwingend auf fehlerhaften oder abnormalen Wahrnehmungen, sondern repräsentieren eine Fehlinterpretation von (teilweise) normalen sensorischen Phänomenen, die sich von einem (normalen) «Als-ob»-Gefühl bis hin zu einer wahnhaften Überzeugung steigern. Im Einklang mit dem erläuterten Modell werden Positivsymptome durch Interventionen wie das metakognitive Training (MKT) verringert, die Betroffene dazu anhalten, mehr Informationen zu sammeln und ihre Urteilssicherheit zu reduzieren (Säen von Zweifel). Die antipsychotische Wirkung von Antipsychotika/Neuroleptika wird im Rahmen der Theorie zum Teil durch ihre Eigenschaft erklärt, Zweifel zu induzieren. Die Bedeutung der Emotionsregulation bei der Reduktion von Positivsymptomen wird ebenfalls aufgezeigt, und zukünftige Forschungsrichtungen sowie offene Fragen diskutiert.

Keywords:
Psychose, Schizophrenie, Erhöhte Urteilssicherheit, Voreiliges Schlussfolgern, Liberale Akzeptanz
1.
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 5. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 2013.
2.
Andreou C, Bozikas VP, Lüdtke T, Moritz S, Luedtke T, Moritz S: Associations between visual perception accuracy and confidence in a dopaminergic manipulation study. Front Psychol 2015;6:414.
3.
Andreou C, Moritz S, Veith K, Veckenstedt R, Naber D: Dopaminergic modulation of probabilistic reasoning and overconfidence in errors: a double-blind study. Schizophr Bull 2013;40:558-565.
4.
Andreou C, Wittekind CE, Fieker M, Heitz U, Veckenstedt R, Bohn F, Moritz S: Individualized metacognitive therapy for delusions: a randomized controlled rater-blind study. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2016; doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.11.013 (Epub ahead of print).
5.
Balzan R, Delfabbro P, Galletly C, Woodward T: Confirmation biases across the psychosis continuum: The contribution of hypersalient evidence-hypothesis matches. Brit J Clin Psychol 2013;52:53-69.
6.
Balzan RP: Overconfidence in psychosis: the foundation of delusional conviction? Cogent Psychol 2016;3:1135855.
7.
Balzan RP, Neaves A, Denson LA, Liu D, Galletly C: Cognitive deficit awareness in schizophrenia: absent, intact, or somewhere in-between? Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2014;19:471-484.
8.
Barker MJ, Greenwood KM, Jackson M, Crowe SF: Persistence of cognitive effects after withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use: a meta-analysis. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2004;19:437-454.
9.
Bell V, Halligan PW, Ellis HD: Are anomalous perceptual experiences necessary for delusions? J Nerv Ment Dis 2008;196:3-8.
10.
Bentall RP, Corcoran R, Howard R, Blackwood N, Kinderman P: Persecutory delusions: a review and theoretical integration. Clin Psychol Rev 2001;21:1143-1192.
11.
Bentall RP, de Sousa P, Varese F, Wickham S, Sitko K, Haarmans M, Read J: From adversity to psychosis: pathways and mechanisms from specific adversities to specific symptoms. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2014;49:1011-1022.
12.
Bhatt R, Laws KR, McKenna PJ: False memory in schizophrenia patients with and without delusions. Psychiatry Res 2010;178:260-265.
13.
Bjørkly S: Psychotic symptoms and violence toward others - a literature review of some preliminary findings: part 2. Hallucinations. Aggress Violent Behav 2002;7: 605-615.
14.
Bleuler E: Dementia praecox oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Leipzig, Deuticke, 1911.
15.
Buchy L, Woodward TS, Liotti M: A cognitive bias against disconfirmatory evidence (BADE) is associated with schizotypy. Schizophrenia Research 2007;90:334-337.
16.
Carpenter WT, Strauss JS, Muleh S: Are there pathognomonic symptoms in schizophrenia? An empiric investigation of Schneider's first-rank symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1973;28:847-852.
17.
Chapman LJ, Chapman JP: The genesis of delusions; in Oltmanns TF, Maher BA (eds): Delusional Beliefs. New York, NY, Wiley, 1988, pp 167-183.
18.
Coltheart M, Langdon R, McKay R: Delusional belief. Annu Rev Psychol 2011;62:271-298.
19.
Corlett PR, Taylor JR, Wang XJ, Fletcher PC, Krystal JH: Toward a neurobiology of delusions. Prog Neurobiol 2010;92:345-369.
20.
Davies M, Coltheart M, Langdon R, Breen N: Monothematic delusions: towards a two-factor account. Philos Psychiatr Psychol 2001;8:133-158.
21.
Dollfus S, Petit M: Stability of positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenic patients: a 3-year follow-up study. Eur Psychiatry 1995;10:228-236.
22.
Doré M-C, Caza N, Gingras N, Rouleau N: Deficient relational binding processes in adolescents with psychosis: evidence from impaired memory for source and temporal context. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2007;12:511-536.
23.
Eichner C, Berna F: Acceptance and efficacy of metacognitive training (MCT) on positive symptoms and delusions in patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis taking into account important moderators. Schizophr Bull 2016;42:952-962.
24.
Eisenacher S, Rausch F, Ainser F, Mier D, Veckenstedt R, Schirmbeck F, Lewien A, Englisch S, Andreou C, Moritz S, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Kirsch P, Zink M: Investigation of metamemory functioning in the at-risk mental state for psychosis. Psychol Med 2015;45:3329-3340.
25.
Eisenacher S, Rausch F, Mier D, Fenske S, Veckenstedt R, Englisch S, Becker A, Andreou C, Moritz S, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Zink M: Bias against disconfirmatory evidence in the ‘at-risk mental state' and during psychosis. Psychiatry Res 2016;238:242-250.
26.
Fatouros-Bergman H, Cervenka S, Flyckt L, Edman G, Farde L: Meta-analysis of cognitive performance in drug-naïve patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2014;158:156-162.
27.
Fervaha G, Zakzanis KK, Foussias G, Graff-Guerrero A, Agid O, Remington G: Motivational deficits and cognitive test performance in schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry 2014;71:1058-1065.
28.
Fett A-KJ, Shergill SS, Joyce DW, Riedl A, Strobel M, Gromann PM, Krabbendam L: To trust or not to trust: the dynamics of social interaction in psychosis. Brain 2012;135:976-984.
29.
Fletcher PC, Frith CD: Perceiving is believing: a Bayesian approach to explaining the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci 2009;10:48-58.
30.
Freeman D, Dunn G, Startup H, Pugh K, Cordwell J, Mander H, Černis E, Wingham G, Shirvell K, Kingdon D: Effects of cognitive behaviour therapy for worry on persecutory delusions in patients with psychosis (WIT): A parallel, single-blind, randomised controlled trial with a mediation analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2:305-313.
31.
Freeman D, Garety P: Advances in understanding and treating persecutory delusions: a review. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2014;49:1179-1189.
32.
Freeman D, Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Bebbington PE: A cognitive model of persecutory delusions. Br J Clin Psychol 2002;41:331-347.
33.
Frith CD: Consciousness, information processing and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1979;134:225-235.
34.
Fugelsang JA, Stein CB, Green AE, Dunbar KN: Theory and data interactions of the scientific mind: evidence from the molecular and the cognitive laboratory. Can J Exp Psychol 2004;58:86-95.
35.
Galbraith N, Manktelow K: A psychological model of delusional belief. Integrating reasoning biases with perceptual, self-concept and emotional factors; in Galbraith N (ed): Aberrant Beliefs and Reasoning. Hove, Psychology Press, 2015.
36.
Garety PA, Freeman D: Cognitive approaches to delusions: a critical review of theories and evidence. Br J Clin Psychol 1999;38:113-154.
37.
Garety PA, Freeman D: The past and future of delusions research: from the inexplicable to the treatable. Br J Psychiatry 2013;203:327-333.
38.
Garety PA, Hemsley DR, Wessely S: Reasoning in deluded schizophrenic and paranoid patients. Biases in performance on a probabilistic inference task. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179:194-201.
39.
Gawęda L, Woodward TS, Moritz S, Kokoszka A: Impaired action self-monitoring in schizophrenia patients with auditory hallucinations. Schizophr Res 2013;144:72-79.
40.
Heinrichs RW, Zakzanis KK: Neurocognitive deficit in schizophrenia: a quantitative review of the evidence. Neuropsychology 1998;12:426-445.
41.
Jaspers K: Allgemeine Psychopathologie (General Psychopathology), ed 4. Berlin, Springer, 1913.
42.
de Jong PJ: Danger-confirming reasoning and the persistence of phobic beliefs; in Galbraith N (ed): Aberrant Beliefs and Reasoning. Hove, Psychology Press, 2015, pp 132-153.
43.
Junginger J: Psychosis and violence: the case for a content analysis of psychotic experience. Schizophr Bull 1996;22:91-103.
44.
Kapur S: Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:13-23.
45.
Keefe RSE, Harvey PD: Cognitive impairment in schizophrenia; in Geyer MA, Gross G (eds): Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, vol 213. Berlin, Springer, 2012, pp 11-37.
46.
Kircher TTJ, Koch K, Stottmeister F, Durst V: Metacognition and reflexivity in patients with schizophrenia. Psychopathology 2007;40:254-260.
47.
Klosterkötter J: The meaning of basic symptoms for the genesis of the schizophrenic nuclear syndrome. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 1992;46:609-630.
48.
Köther U, Veckenstedt R, Vitzthum F, Roesch-Ely D, Pfueller U, Scheu F, Moritz S: ‘Don't give me that look' - Overconfidence in false mental state perception in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2012;196:1-8.
49.
Köther U, Vetorazzi E, Veckenstedt R, Hottenrott B, Bohn F, Scheu F, Pfueller U, Roesch-Ely D, Moritz S: Bayesian analyses of the effect of metacognitive training on social cognition deficits and overconfidence in errors. J Exp Psychopathol, im Druck.
50.
Kraepelin E: Dementia praecox and Paraphrenia. Chicago, Chicago Medical Books, 1919.
51.
Krkovic K, Moritz S, Lincoln TM: Neurocognitive deficits or stress overload: Why do individuals with schizophrenia show poor performance in neurocognitive tests? Schizophr Res 2016; doi: 10.1016/j.schres.2016. 11.002 (Epub ahead of print).
52.
LaRocco VA, Warman DM: Probability estimations and delusion-proneness. Pers Individ Dif 2009;47:197-202.
53.
Laroi F, Luhrmann TM, Bell V, Christian WA, Deshpande S, Fernyhough C, Jenkins J, Woods A: Culture and hallucinations: overview and future directions. Schizophr Bull 2014;40(Suppl 4):S213-S220.
54.
Lincoln TM, Möbius C, Huber MT, Nagel M, Moritz S: Frequency and correlates of maladaptive responses to paranoid thoughts in patients with psychosis compared to a population sample. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2014a;19:509-526.
55.
Lincoln TM, Peter N, Schäfer M, Moritz S: From stress to paranoia: an experimental investigation of the moderating and mediating role of reasoning biases. Psychol Med 2010;40:169-171.
56.
Lincoln TM, Salzmann S, Ziegler M, Westermann S: When does jumping-to-conclusions reach its peak? The interaction of vulnerability and situation-characteristics in social reasoning. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2011;42:185-191.
57.
Lincoln TM, Stahnke J, Moritz S: The short-term impact of a paranoid explanation on self-esteem: an experimental study. Cogn Ther Res 2014b;38:397-406.
58.
Lüdtke T, Kriston L, Schröder J, Lincoln TM, Moritz S: Negative affect and a fluctuating jumping to conclusions bias predict subsequent paranoia in daily life: an online experience sampling study. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2016; doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.08.014 (Epub ahead of print).
59.
Mackinnon K, Newman-Taylor K, Stopa L: Persecutory delusions and the self: an investigation of implicit and explicit self-esteem. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2011;42:54-64.
60.
Maher BA: Delusional thinking and perceptual disorder. J Individ Psychol 1974;30:98-113.
61.
Maher BA: Anomalous experience in everyday life: its significance for psychopathology. Monist 1999;82:547-570.
62.
Maher BA: The relationship between delusions and hallucinations. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2006;8:179-183.
63.
Mayer JS, Kim J, Park S: Failure to benefit from target novelty during encoding contributes to working memory deficits in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2014;19:268-279.
64.
McKay R: Hallucinating god? The cognitive neuropsychiatry of religious belief and experience. Evol Cogn 2004;10:114-125.
65.
McLean BF, Mattiske JK, Balzan RP: Association of the jumping to conclusions and evidence integration biases with delusions in psychosis: a detailed meta-analytic approach. Schizophr Bull 2016; pii: sbw056 (Epub ahead of print).
66.
Miyazono K, Bortolotti L, Broome MR: Prediction-error and two-factor theories of delusion formation. Competitors or allies?; in Galbraith N (ed): Aberrant Beliefs and Reasoning. Hove, Psychology Press,2015, pp 34-54.
67.
Mizrahi R, Kiang M, Mamo DC, Arenovich T, Bagby RM, Zipursky RB, Kapur S: The selective effect of antipsychotics on the different dimensions of the experience of psychosis in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Res 2006;88:111-118.
68.
Moritz S, Andreou C, Klingberg S, Thoering T, Peters MJ: Assessment of subjective cognitive and emotional effects of antipsychotic drugs. Effect by defect? Neuropharmacology 2013a;72:179-186.
69.
Moritz S, Andreou C, Schneider BC, Wittekind CE, Menon M, Balzan RP, Woodward TS: Sowing the seeds of doubt: A narrative review on metacognitive training in schizophrenia. Clin Psychol Rev 2014a;34:358-366.
70.
Moritz S, Balzan RP, Bohn F, Veckenstedt R, Kolbeck K, Bierbrodt J, Dietrichkeit M Subjective versus objective cognition: Evidence for poor metacognitive monitoring in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2016a;178:75-79.
71.
Moritz S, Burnette P, Sperber S, Köther U, Hagemann-Goebel M, Hartmann M, Lincoln TM: Elucidating the black box from stress to paranoia. Schizophr Bull 2011;37:1311-1317.
72.
Moritz S, Claussen M, Hauschildt M, Kellner M: Perceptual properties of obsessive thoughts are associated with low insight in obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 2014b;202:562-565.
73.
Moritz S, Favrod J, Andreou C, Morrison AP, Bohn F, Veckenstedt R, Tonn P, Karow A: Beyond the usual suspects: positive attitudes towards positive symptoms is associated with medication noncompliance in psychosis. Schizophr Bull 2013b;39:917-922.
74.
Moritz S, Göritz AS, Gallinat J, Schafschetzy M, Van Quaquebeke N, Peters MJ V, Andreou C: Subjective competence breeds overconfidence in errors in psychosis. A hubris account of paranoia. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2015a;48:118-124.
75.
Moritz S, Hörmann CC, Schröder J, Berger T, Jacob GA, Meyer B, Holmes EA, Späth C, Hautzinger M, Lutz W, Rose M, Klein JP: Beyond words: sensory properties of depressive thoughts. Cogn Emot 2014c;28:1047-1056.
76.
Moritz S, Köther U, Hartmann M, Lincoln TM: Stress is a bad advisor. Stress primes poor decision making in deluded psychotic patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2015b;265:461-469.
77.
Moritz S, Larøi F: Differences and similarities in the sensory and cognitive signatures of voice-hearing, intrusions and thoughts. Schizophr Res 2008;102:96-107.
78.
Moritz S, Van Quaquebeke N: Are you sure? Delusion conviction moderates the behavioural and emotional consequences of paranoid ideas. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2014;19:164-180.
79.
Moritz S, Van Quaquebeke N, Lincoln TM: Jumping to conclusions is associated with paranoia but not general suspiciousness: a comparison of two versions of the probabilistic reasoning paradigm. Schizophr Res Treatment 2012;2012:384039.
80.
Moritz S, Ramdani N, Klass H, Andreou C, Jungclaussen D, Eifler S, Englisch S, Schirmbeck F, Zink M: Overconfidence in incorrect perceptual judgments in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res Cogn 2014d;1:165-170.
81.
Moritz S, Rietschel L, Veckenstedt R, Bohn F, Schneider BC, Lincoln TM, Karow A: The other side of ‘madness': frequencies of positive and ambivalent attitudes towards prominent positive symptoms in psychosis. Psychosis 2015c;7:14-24.
82.
Moritz S, Scheu F, Andreou C, Pfueller U, Weisbrod M, Roesch-Ely D: Reasoning in psychosis: risky but not necessarily hasty. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2016b;21:91-106.
83.
Moritz S, Veckenstedt R, Randjbar S, Hottenrott B, Woodward TS, von Eckstaedt FV, Schmidt C, Jelinek L, Lincoln TM: Decision making under uncertainty and mood induction: further evidence for liberal acceptance in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2009;39:1821-1829.
84.
Moritz S, Werner R, von Collani G: The inferiority complex in paranoia readdressed: a study with the Implicit Association Test. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2006a;11:402-415.
85.
Moritz S, Woodward T: Plausibility judgment in schizophrenic patients: evidence for a liberal acceptance bias. Ger J Psychiatry 2004;7:66-74.
86.
Moritz S, Woodward TS: Metacognitive control over false memories: A key determinant of delusional thinking. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2006;8:184-190.
87.
Moritz S, Woodward TS, Chen E: Investigation of metamemory dysfunctions in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2006b;81:247-252.
88.
Moritz S, Woodward TS, Hausmann D: Incautious reasoning as a pathogenetic factor for the development of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2006c;32:327-331.
89.
Moritz S, Woodward TS, Jelinek L, Klinge R: Memory and metamemory in schizophrenia: a liberal acceptance account of psychosis. Psychol Med 2008;38:825-832.
90.
Moritz S, Woodward TS, Lambert M: Under what circumstances do patients with schizophrenia jump to conclusions? A liberal acceptance account. Br J Clin Psychol 2007;46:127-137.
91.
Moritz S, Woodward TS, Ruff CC: Source monitoring and memory confidence in schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2003;33:131-139.
92.
Morrison AP: The interpretation of intrusions in psychosis: an integrative cognitive approach to psychotic symptoms. Behav Cogn Psychother 2001;29:257-276.
93.
Nickerson RS: Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Rev Gen Psychol 1998;2:175-220.
94.
Oswald ME, Grosjean S: Confirmation bias; in Pohl RF (ed): Cognitive Illusions: a Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory. East Sussex, Psychology Press, 2004, pp 79-96.
95.
Patalano A, LeClair Z: The influence of group decision making on indecisiveness-related decisional confidence. Judgm Decis Mak 2011;6:163-175.
96.
Peters E, Lataster T, Greenwood K, Kuipers E, Scott J, Williams S, Garety P, Myin-Germeys I: Appraisals, psychotic symptoms and affect in daily life. Psycholo Med 2012;42:1013-1023.
97.
Peters MJ, Cima MJ, Smeets T, de Vos M, Jelicic M, Merckelbach H: Did I say that word or did you? Executive dysfunctions in schizophrenic patients affect memory efficiency, but not source attributions. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2007;12:391-411.
98.
Peters MJ, Hauschildt M, Moritz S, Jelinek L: Impact of emotionality on memory and meta-memory in schizophrenia using video sequences. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2013;44:77-83.
99.
Pfuhl G: A Bayesian perspective on delusions: Suggestions for modifying two reasoning tasks. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2016; doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.08.006 (Epub ahead of print).
100.
Röhlinger J, Wulf F, Fieker M, Moritz S: Sensory properties of obsessive thoughts in OCD and the relationship to psychopathology. Psychiatry Res 2015;230,:592-596.
101.
Salimi K, Jarskog LF, Lieberman JA: Antipsychotic drugs for first-episode schizophrenia: a comparative review. CNS Drugs 2009;23:837-855.
102.
Sanford N, Veckenstedt R, Moritz S, Balzan RP, Woodward TS: Impaired integration of disambiguating evidence in delusional schizophrenia patients. Psychol Med 2014;44:2729-2738.
103.
Schaefer J, Giangrande E, Weinberger DR, Dickinson D: The global cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: consistent over decades and around the world. Schizophr Res 2013;150:42-50.
104.
Schneider K: Klinische Psychopathologie, ed 5. Stuttgart, Thieme, 1959.
105.
Schneider K: Zur Einführung in die Religionspsychopathologie (Introduction to the psychopathology of religion). Tübingen, J.C.B. Mohr Verlag, 1928.
106.
Soares SC, Esteves F, Lundqvist D, Öhman A: Some animal specific fears are more specific than others: evidence from attention and emotion measures. Behav Res Ther 2009;47:1032-1042.
107.
Steinebrunner E, Scharfetter C: Wahn im Wandel der Geschichte (Delusion in the course of time). Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 1976;222:47-60.
108.
Stompe T, Ortwein-Swoboda G, Ritter K, Schanda H: Old wine in new bottles? Stability and plasticity of the contents of schizophrenic delusions. Psychopathology 2003;36:6-12.
109.
Sundag J, Lincoln TM, Hartmann MM, Moritz S: Is the content of persecutory delusions relevant to self-esteem? Psychosis 2014;7:237-248.
110.
Thewissen V, Bentall RP, Oorschot M, A Campo J, van Lierop T, van Os J, Myin-Germeys I: Emotions, self-esteem, and paranoid episodes: an experience sampling study. Br J Clin Psychol 2011;50:178-195.
111.
Veckenstedt R, Randjbar S, Vitzthum F, Hottenrott B, Woodward TS, Moritz S: Incorrigibility, jumping to conclusions, and decision threshold in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2011;16:174-192.
112.
Vellante M, Larøi F, Cella M, Raballo A, Petretto DR, Preti A: Hallucination-like experiences in the nonclinical population. J Nerv Ment Dis 2012;200:310-315.
113.
Vinogradov S, Fisher M, Warm H, Holland C, Kirshner MA, Pollock BG: The cognitive cost of anticholinergic burden: decreased response to cognitive training in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:1055-1062.
114.
Vinokur A, Ajzen I: Relative importance of prior and immediate events: A causal primacy effect. J Pers Soc Psychol 1982;42:820-829.
115.
Waller H, Emsley R, Freeman D, Bebbington P, Dunn G, Fowler D, Hardy A, Kuipers E, Garety P: Thinking Well: A randomised controlled feasibility study of a new CBT therapy targeting reasoning biases in people with distressing persecutory delusional beliefs. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2015;48:82-89.
116.
Westermann S, Cavelti M, Heibach E, Caspar F: Motive-oriented therapeutic relationship building for patients diagnosed with schizophrenia. Front Psychol 2015;6:1294.
117.
Woodward TS, Buchy L, Moritz S, Liotti M: A bias against disconfirmatory evidence is associated with delusion proneness in a nonclinical sample. Schizophr Bull 2007;33:1023-1028.
118.
Woodward TS, Moritz S, Chen EYH: The contribution of a cognitive bias against disconfirmatory evidence (BADE) to delusions: a study in an Asian sample with first episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Res 2006;83:297-298.
119.
Woodward TS, Moritz S, Menon M, Klinge R: Belief inflexibility in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2008;13:267-277.
120.
Yu S, Pleskac TJ, Zeigenfuse MD: Dynamics of postdecisional processing of confidence. J Exp Psychol Gen 2015;144:489-510.
121.
Zimbardo PG: Discontinuity theory: cognitive and social searches for rationality and normality may lead to madness. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 1999;31:345-486.
© 2017 S. Karger GmbH, Freiburg
2017
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.