Background: Vitamin D is a secosteroid, which was initially known for its skeletal role; however, in recent years, its functions in different organs have been increasingly recognized. In this review, we will provide an overview of vitamin D functions in the skin physiology with specific focus on its role in certain inflammatory skin conditions such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis. Methods: A comprehensive literature search was carried out in PubMed and Google Scholar databases using keywords like “vitamin D,” “skin,” “atopic dermatitis,” and “psoriasis.” Only articles published in English and related to the study topic were included in this review. Results: Vitamin D is integrally connected to the skin for its synthesis, metabolism, and activity. It regulates many physiological processes in the skin ranging from cellular proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis to barrier maintenance and immune functions. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with the risk of psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, and several clinical/observational studies have suggested the beneficial effect of vitamin D in the therapy of these 2 inflammatory skin disorders. Conclusions: Vitamin D exerts a pleiotropic effect in the skin and could be an important therapeutic option for psoriasis and atopic dermatitis.

Keywords:
Vitamin D, Skin, Keratinocytes, Psoriasis, Atopic dermatitis
1.
Bikle DD: Vitamin D and the skin: physiology and pathophysiology. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2012;13:3-19.
2.
Reichrath J, Zouboulis CC, Vogt T, Holick MF: Targeting the vitamin D endocrine system (VDES) for the management of inflammatory and malignant skin diseases: a historical view and outlook. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2016;17:405-417.
3.
Sandilands A, Sutherland C, Irvine AD, McLean WH: Filaggrin in the frontline: role in skin barrier function and disease. J Cell Sci 2009;122:1285-1294.
4.
Deraison C, Bonnart C, Lopez F, Besson C, Robinson R, Jayakumar A, Wagberg F, Brattsand M, Hachem JP, Leonardsson G, Hovnanian A: LEKTI fragments specifically inhibit KLK5, KLK7, and KLK14 and control desquamation through a pH-dependent interaction. Mol Biol Cell 2007;18:3607-3619.
5.
Bikle DD: Vitamin D metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications. Chem Biol 2014;21:319-329.
6.
Henry HL: Regulation of vitamin D metabolism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;25:531-541.
7.
Christakos S, Ajibade DV, Dhawan P, Fechner AJ, Mady LJ: Vitamin D: metabolism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2010;39:243-253, table of contents.
8.
Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, Murad MH, Weaver CM: Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:1911-1930.
9.
Zittermann A, Gummert JF: Nonclassical vitamin D action. Nutrients 2010;2:408-425.
10.
Bikle D: Nonclassic actions of vitamin D. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009;94:26-34.
11.
Itin PH, Pittelkow MR, Kumar R: Effects of vitamin D metabolites on proliferation and differentiation of cultured human epidermal keratinocytes grown in serum-free or defined culture medium. Endocrinology 1994;135:1793-1798.
12.
Gniadecki R: Stimulation versus inhibition of keratinocyte growth by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: dependence on cell culture conditions. J Invest Dermatol 1996;106:510-516.
13.
Svendsen ML, Daneels G, Geysen J, Binderup L, Kragballe K: Proliferation and differentiation of cultured human keratinocytes is modulated by 1,25(OH)2D3 and synthetic vitamin D3 analogues in a cell density-, calcium- and serum-dependent manner. Pharmacol Toxicol 1997;80:49-56.
14.
Bikle DD: Vitamin D metabolism and function in the skin. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2011;347:80-89.
15.
Bikle DD, Ng D, Tu CL, Oda Y, Xie Z: Calcium- and vitamin D-regulated keratinocyte differentiation. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2001;177:161-171.
16.
Ratnam AV, Bikle DD, Cho JK: 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 enhances the calcium response of keratinocytes. J Cell Physiol 1999;178:188-196.
17.
Pillai S, Mahajan M, Carlomusto M: Ceramide potentiates, but sphingomyelin inhibits, vitamin D-induced keratinocyte differentiation: comparison between keratinocytes and HL-60 cells. Arch Dermatol Res 1999;291:284-289.
18.
Xie Z, Komuves L, Yu QC, Elalieh H, Ng DC, Leary C, Chang S, Crumrine D, Yoshizawa T, Kato S, Bikle DD: Lack of the vitamin D receptor is associated with reduced epidermal differentiation and hair follicle growth. J Invest Dermatol 2002;118:11-16.
19.
Oda Y, Sihlbom C, Chalkley RJ, Huang L, Rachez C, Chang CP, Burlingame AL, Freedman LP, Bikle DD: Two distinct coactivators, DRIP/mediator and SRC/p160, are differentially involved in VDR transactivation during keratinocyte differentiation. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2004;89-90:273-276.
20.
Bikle DD, Oda Y, Xie Z: Calcium and 1,25(OH)2D: interacting drivers of epidermal differentiation. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2004;89-90:355-360.
21.
Effendy I, Kwangsukstith C, Chiappe M, Maibach HI: Effects of calcipotriol on stratum corneum barrier function, hydration and cell renewal in humans. Br J Dermatol 1996;135:545-549.
22.
Hong SP, Oh Y, Jung M, Lee S, Jeon H, Cho MY, Lee SH, Choi EH: Topical calcitriol restores the impairment of epidermal permeability and antimicrobial barriers induced by corticosteroids. Br J Dermatol 2010;162:1251-1260.
23.
Oda Y, Uchida Y, Moradian S, Crumrine D, Elias PM, Bikle DD: Vitamin D receptor and coactivators SRC2 and 3 regulate epidermis-specific sphingolipid production and permeability barrier formation. J Invest Dermatol 2009;129:1367-1378.
24.
Manggau M, Kim DS, Ruwisch L, Vogler R, Korting HC, Schafer-Korting M, Kleuser B: 1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 protects human keratinocytes from apoptosis by the formation of sphingosine-1-phosphate. J Invest Dermatol 2001;117:1241-1249.
25.
De Haes P, Garmyn M, Carmeliet G, Degreef H, Vantieghem K, Bouillon R, Segaert S: Molecular pathways involved in the anti-apoptotic effect of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in primary human keratinocytes. J Cell Biochem 2004;93:951-967.
26.
Schauber J, Gallo RL: Antimicrobial peptides and the skin immune defense system. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009;124:R13-R18.
27.
Gallo RL, Hooper LV: Epithelial antimicrobial defence of the skin and intestine. Nat Rev Immunol 2012;12:503-516.
28.
Schauber J, Gallo RL: Expanding the roles of antimicrobial peptides in skin: alarming and arming keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2007;127:510-512.
29.
Schauber J, Dorschner RA, Coda AB, Büchau AS, Liu PT, Kiken D, Helfrich YR, Kang S, Elalieh HZ, Steinmeyer A, Zugel U, Bikle DD, Modlin RL, Gallo RL: Injury enhances TLR2 function and antimicrobial peptide expression through a vitamin D-dependent mechanism. J Clin Invest 2007;117:803-811.
30.
Lee WJ, Cha HW, Sohn MY, Lee SJ, Kim DW: Vitamin D increases expression of cathelicidin in cultured sebocytes. Arch Dermatol Res 2012;304:627-632.
31.
Heilborn JD, Weber G, Gronberg A, Dieterich C, Stahle M: Topical treatment with the vitamin D analogue calcipotriol enhances the upregulation of the antimicrobial protein hCAP18/LL-37 during wounding in human skin in vivo. Exp Dermatol 2010;19:332-338.
32.
Weber G, Heilborn JD, Chamorro Jimenez CI, Hammarsjo A, Torma H, Stahle M: Vitamin D induces the antimicrobial protein hCAP18 in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 2005;124:1080-1082.
33.
Dai X, Sayama K, Tohyama M, Shirakata Y, Hanakawa Y, Tokumaru S, Yang L, Hirakawa S, Hashimoto K: PPARgamma mediates innate immunity by regulating the 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 induced hBD-3 and cathelicidin in human keratinocytes. J Dermatol Sci 2010;60:179-186.
34.
Liu PT, Schenk M, Walker VP, Dempsey PW, Kanchanapoomi M, Wheelwright M, Vazirnia A, Zhang X, Steinmeyer A, Zugel U, Hollis BW, Cheng G, Modlin RL: Convergence of IL-1beta and VDR activation pathways in human TLR2/1-induced antimicrobial responses. PLoS One 2009;4:e5810.
35.
Yamasaki K, Schauber J, Coda A, Lin H, Dorschner RA, Schechter NM, Bonnart C, Descargues P, Hovnanian A, Gallo RL: Kallikrein-mediated proteolysis regulates the antimicrobial effects of cathelicidins in skin. FASEB J 2006;20:2068-2080.
36.
Morizane S, Yamasaki K, Kabigting FD, Gallo RL: Kallikrein expression and cathelicidin processing are independently controlled in keratinocytes by calcium, vitamin D(3), and retinoic acid. J Invest Dermatol 2010;130:1297-1306.
37.
Bagot M, Charue D, Lescs MC, Pamphile RP, Revuz J: Immunosuppressive effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and its analogue calcipotriol on epidermal cells. Br J Dermatol 1994;130:424-431.
38.
Dam TN, Moller B, Hindkjaer J, Kragballe K: The vitamin D3 analog calcipotriol suppresses the number and antigen-presenting function of Langerhans cells in normal human skin. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 1996;1:72-77.
39.
Ghoreishi M, Bach P, Obst J, Komba M, Fleet JC, Dutz JP: Expansion of antigen-specific regulatory T cells with the topical vitamin D analog calcipotriol. J Immunol 2009;182:6071-6078.
40.
Gorman S, Geldenhuys S, Judge M, Weeden CE, Waithman J, Hart PH: Dietary vitamin D increases percentages and function of regulatory T cells in the skin-draining lymph nodes and suppresses dermal inflammation. J Immunol Res 2016;2016:1426503.
41.
Yamanaka K, Dimitroff CJ, Fuhlbrigge RC, Kakeda M, Kurokawa I, Mizutani H, Kupper TS: Vitamins A and D are potent inhibitors of cutaneous lymphocyte-associated antigen expression. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008;121:148-157. e143.
42.
Yamanaka KI, Kakeda M, Kitagawa H, Tsuda K, Akeda T, Kurokawa I, Gabazza EC, Kupper TS, Mizutani H: 1,24-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (tacalcitol) prevents skin T-cell infiltration. Br J Dermatol 2010;162:1206-1215.
43.
Sigmundsdottir H, Pan J, Debes GF, Alt C, Habtezion A, Soler D, Butcher EC: DCs metabolize sunlight-induced vitamin D3 to “program” T cell attraction to the epidermal chemokine CCL27. Nat Immunol 2007;8:285-293.
44.
Baeke F, Korf H, Overbergh L, Verstuyf A, Thorrez L, Van Lommel L, Waer M, Schuit F, Gysemans C, Mathieu C: The vitamin D analog, TX527, promotes a human CD4+CD25highCD127low regulatory T cell profile and induces a migratory signature specific for homing to sites of inflammation. J Immunol 2011;186:132-142.
45.
Khoo AL, Koenen HJ, Michels M, Ooms S, Bosch M, Netea MG, Joosten I, van der Ven AJ: High-dose vitamin D3 supplementation is a requisite for modulation of skin-homing markers on regulatory T cells in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2013;29:299-306.
46.
Khoo AL, Koenen HJ, Chai LY, Sweep FC, Netea MG, van der Ven AJ, Joosten I: Seasonal variation in vitamin D(3) levels is paralleled by changes in the peripheral blood human T cell compartment. PLoS One 2012;7:e29250.
47.
Lande R, Gregorio J, Facchinetti V, Chatterjee B, Wang YH, Homey B, Cao W, Su B, Nestle FO, Zal T, Mellman I, Schroder JM, Liu YJ, Gilliet M: Plasmacytoid dendritic cells sense self-DNA coupled with antimicrobial peptide. Nature 2007;449:564-569.
48.
Nestle FO, Conrad C, Tun-Kyi A, Homey B, Gombert M, Boyman O, Burg G, Liu YJ, Gilliet M: Plasmacytoid predendritic cells initiate psoriasis through interferon-alpha production. J Exp Med 2005;202:135-143.
49.
Lowes MA, Chamian F, Abello MV, Fuentes-Duculan J, Lin SL, Nussbaum R, Novitskaya I, Carbonaro H, Cardinale I, Kikuchi T, Gilleaudeau P, Sullivan-Whalen M, Wittkowski KM, Papp K, Garovoy M, Dummer W, Steinman RM, Krueger JG: Increase in TNF-alpha and inducible nitric oxide synthase-expressing dendritic cells in psoriasis and reduction with efalizumab (anti-CD11a). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:19057-19062.
50.
Chu CC, Di Meglio P, Nestle FO: Harnessing dendritic cells in inflammatory skin diseases. Semin Immunol 2011;23:28-41.
51.
Schön MP, Broekaert SM, Erpenbeck L: Sexy again: the renaissance of neutrophils in psoriasis. Exp Dermatol 2017;26:305-311.
52.
Tobin AM, Lynch L, Kirby B, O'Farrelly C: Natural killer cells in psoriasis. J Innate Immun 2011;3:403-410.
53.
Cai Y, Fleming C, Yan J: New insights of T cells in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Cell Mol Immunol 2012;9:302-309.
54.
Peternel S, Kastelan M: Immunopathogenesis of psoriasis: focus on natural killer T cells. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2009;23:1123-1127.
55.
Nestle FO, Kaplan DH, Barker J: Psoriasis. N Engl J Med 2009;361:496-509.
56.
Soler DC, Sugiyama H, Young AB, Massari JV, McCormick TS, Cooper KD: Psoriasis patients exhibit impairment of the high potency CCR5(+) T regulatory cell subset. Clin Immunol 2013;149:111-118.
57.
Mattozzi C, Salvi M, D'Epiro S, Giancristoforo S, Macaluso L, Luci C, Lal K, Calvieri S, Richetta AG: Importance of regulatory T cells in the pathogenesis of psoriasis: review of the literature. Dermatology 2013;227:134-145.
58.
Yang L, Li B, Dang E, Jin L, Fan X, Wang G: Impaired function of regulatory T cells in patients with psoriasis is mediated by phosphorylation of STAT3. J Dermatol Sci 2016;81:85-92.
59.
Mattozzi C, Paolino G, Salvi M, Macaluso L, Luci C, Morrone S, Calvieri S, Richetta AG: Peripheral blood regulatory T cell measurements correlate with serum vitamin D level in patients with psoriasis. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2016;20:1675-1679.
60.
Maleki M, Nahidi Y, Azizahari S, Meibodi NT, Hadianfar A: Serum 25-OH vitamin D level in psoriatic patients and comparison with control subjects. J Cutan Med Surg 2016;20:207-210.
61.
Gisondi P, Rossini M, Di Cesare A, Idolazzi L, Farina S, Beltrami G, Peris K, Girolomoni G: Vitamin D status in patients with chronic plaque psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2012;166:505-510.
62.
Chandrashekar L, Kumarit GR, Rajappa M, Revathy G, Munisamy M, Thappa DM: 25-Hydroxy vitamin D and ischaemia-modified albumin levels in psoriasis and their association with disease severity. Br J Biomed Sci 2015;72:56-60.
63.
Orgaz-Molina J, Magro-Checa C, Rosales-Alexander JL, Arrabal-Polo MA, Castellote-Caballero L, Buendia-Eisman A, Raya-Alvarez E, Arias-Santiago S: Vitamin D insufficiency is associated with higher carotid intima-media thickness in psoriatic patients. Eur J Dermatol 2014;24:53-62.
64.
Al-Mutairi N, Shaaban D: Effect of narrowband ultraviolet B therapy on serum vitamin D and cathelicidin (LL-37) in patients with chronic plaque psoriasis. J Cutan Med Surg 2014;18:43-48.
65.
Atwa MA, Balata MG, Hussein AM, Abdelrahman NI, Elminshawy HH: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in patients with psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis and its association with disease activity and serum tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Saudi Med J 2013;34:806-813.
66.
Ricceri F, Pescitelli L, Tripo L, Prignano F: Deficiency of serum concentration of 25-hydroxyvitamin D correlates with severity of disease in chronic plaque psoriasis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013;68:511-512.
67.
Wilson PB: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status in individuals with psoriasis in the general population. Endocrine 2013;44:537-539.
68.
Finamor DC, Sinigaglia-Coimbra R, Neves LC, Gutierrez M, Silva JJ, Torres LD, Surano F, Neto DJ, Novo NF, Juliano Y, Lopes AC, Coimbra CG: A pilot study assessing the effect of prolonged administration of high daily doses of vitamin D on the clinical course of vitiligo and psoriasis. Dermatoendocrinology 2013;5:222-234.
69.
Kragballe K, Beck HI, Sogaard H: Improvement of psoriasis by a topical vitamin D3 analogue (MC 903) in a double-blind study. Br J Dermatol 1988;119:223-230.
70.
Van de Kerkhof PC, Berth-Jones J, Griffiths CE, Harrison PV, Honigsmann H, Marks R, Roelandts R, Schopf E, Trompke C: Long-term efficacy and safety of tacalcitol ointment in patients with chronic plaque psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2002;146:414-422.
71.
Barker JN, Ashton RE, Marks R, Harris RI, Berth-Jones J: Topical maxacalcitol for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, dose-finding study with active comparator. Br J Dermatol 1999;141:274-278.
72.
Le P, Tu J, Gebauer K, Brown S: Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D increases with NB-UVB and UVA/UVB phototherapy in patients with psoriasis and atopic dermatitis in Western Australia. Australas J Dermatol 2016;57:115-121.
73.
Franken SM, Witte B, Pavel S, Rustemeyer T: Psoriasis and daily low-emission phototherapy: effects on disease and vitamin D level. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 2015;31:83-89.
74.
Feldmeyer L, Shojaati G, Spanaus KS, Navarini A, Theler B, Donghi D, Urosevic-Maiwald M, Glatz M, Imhof L, Barysch MJ, Dummer R, Roos M, French LE, Surber C, Hofbauer GF: Phototherapy with UVB narrowband, UVA/UVBnb, and UVA1 differentially impacts serum 25-hydroxyvitamin-D3. J Am Acad Dermatol 2013;69:530-536.
75.
Takahashi H, Tsuji H, Ishida-Yamamoto A, Iizuka H: Comparison of clinical effects of psoriasis treatment regimens among calcipotriol alone, narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy alone, combination of calcipotriol and narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy once a week, and combination of calcipotriol and narrowband ultraviolet B phototherapy more than twice a week. J Dermatol 2013;40:424-427.
76.
Segaert S, Ropke M: The biological rationale for use of vitamin D analogs in combination with corticosteroids for the topical treatment of plaque psoriasis. J Drugs Dermatol 2013;12:e129-e137.
77.
Bagel J, Levi E, Tyring S, Knuckles ML: Real-life treatment profile of calcipotriene and betamethasone dipropionate topical suspension in patients with psoriasis vulgaris. J Drugs Dermatol 2014;13:1374-1379.
78.
Eichenfield LF, Ganslandt C, Kurvits M, Schlessinger J: Safety and efficacy of calcipotriene plus betamethasone dipropionate topical suspension in the treatment of extensive scalp psoriasis in adolescents ages 12-17 years. Pediatr Dermatol 2015;32:28-35.
79.
Karthaus N, van Spriel AB, Looman MW, Chen S, Spilgies LM, Lieben L, Carmeliet G, Ansems M, Adema GJ: Vitamin D controls murine and human plasmacytoid dendritic cell function. J Invest Dermatol 2014;134:1255-1264.
80.
Dyring-Andersen B, Bonefeld CM, Bzorek M, Lovendorf MB, Lauritsen JP, Skov L, Geisler C: The vitamin D analogue calcipotriol reduces the frequency of CD8+ IL-17+ T cells in psoriasis lesions. Scand J Immunol 2015;82:84-91.
81.
Fujiyama T, Ito T, Umayahara T, Ikeya S, Tatsuno K, Funakoshi A, Hashizume H, Tokura Y: Topical application of a vitamin D3 analogue and corticosteroid to psoriasis plaques decreases skin infiltration of TH17 cells and their ex vivo expansion. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016;138:517-528 e515.
82.
Sato-Deguchi E, Imafuku S, Chou B, Ishii K, Hiromatsu K, Nakayama J: Topical vitamin D(3) analogues induce thymic stromal lymphopoietin and cathelicidin in psoriatic skin lesions. Br J Dermatol 2012;167:77-84.
83.
Balato A, Schiattarella M, Lembo S, Mattii M, Prevete N, Balato N, Ayala F: Interleukin-1 family members are enhanced in psoriasis and suppressed by vitamin D and retinoic acid. Arch Dermatol Res 2013;305:255-262.
84.
Hegyi Z, Zwicker S, Bureik D, Peric M, Koglin S, Batycka-Baran A, Prinz JC, Ruzicka T, Schauber J, Wolf R: Vitamin D analog calcipotriol suppresses the Th17 cytokine-induced proinflammatory S100 “alarmins” psoriasin (S100A7) and koebnerisin (S100A15) in psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 2012;132:1416-1424.
85.
Datta Mitra A, Raychaudhuri SP, Abria CJ, Mitra A, Wright R, Ray R, Kundu-Raychaudhuri S: 1alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin-D3-3- bromoacetate regulates AKT/mTOR signaling cascades: a therapeutic agent for psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 2013;133:1556-1564.
86.
Hoss E, Austin HR, Batie SF, Jurutka PW, Haussler MR, Whitfield GK: Control of late cornified envelope genes relevant to psoriasis risk: upregulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and plant-derived delphinidin. Arch Dermatol Res 2013;305:867-878.
87.
Visconti B, Paolino G, Carotti S, Pendolino AL, Morini S, Richetta AG, Calvieri S: Immunohistochemical expression of VDR is associated with reduced integrity of tight junction complex in psoriatic skin. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2015;29:2038-2042.
88.
Savoia P, Novelli M, De Matteis A, Verrone A, Bernengo MG: Effects of topical calcipotriol on the expression of adhesion molecules in psoriasis. J Cutan Pathol 1998;25:89-94.
89.
Richetta AG, Silvestri V, Giancristoforo S, Rizzolo P, D'Epiro S, Graziano V, Mattozzi C, Navazio AS, Campoli M, D'Amico C, Scarno M, Calvieri S, Ottini L: A-1012G promoter polymorphism of vitamin D receptor gene is associated with psoriasis risk and lower allele-specific expression. DNA Cell Biol 2014;33:102-109.
90.
Zhou X, Xu LD, Li YZ: The association of polymorphisms of the vitamin D receptor gene with psoriasis in the Han population of northeastern China. J Dermatol Sci 2014;73:63-66.
91.
Polic MV, Rucevic I, Barisic-Drusko V, Miskulin M, Glavas-Obrovac L, Stefanic M, Karner I, Lipozencic J, Bacun T, Mihaljevic I: Polymorphisms of vitamin D receptor gene in the population of eastern Croatia with psoriasis vulgaris and diabetes mellitus. Coll Antropol 2012;36:451-457.
92.
Rucevic I, Stefanic M, Tokic S, Vuksic M, Glavas-Obrovac L, Barisic-Drusko V: Lack of association of vitamin D receptor gene 3′-haplotypes with psoriasis in Croatian patients. J Dermatol 2012;39:58-62.
93.
Zuel-Fakkar NM, Kamel MM, Asaad MK, Mahran MZ, Shehab AA: A study of ApaI and TaqI genotypes of the vitamin D receptor in Egyptian patients with psoriasis. Clin Exp Dermatol 2011;36:355-359.
94.
Liu JL, Zhang SQ, Zeng HM: ApaI, BsmI, FokI and TaqI polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene and the risk of psoriasis: a meta-analysis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2013;27:739-746.
95.
Lee YH, Choi SJ, Ji JD, Song GG: Vitamin D receptor ApaI, TaqI, BsmI, and FokI polymorphisms and psoriasis susceptibility: a meta-analysis. Mol Biol Rep 2012;39:6471-6478.
96.
Ryan C, Renfro L, Collins P, Kirby B, Rogers S: Clinical and genetic predictors of response to narrowband ultraviolet B for the treatment of chronic plaque psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2010;163:1056-1063.
97.
Halsall JA, Osborne JE, Pringle JH, Hutchinson PE: Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms, particularly the novel A-1012G promoter polymorphism, are associated with vitamin D3 responsiveness and non-familial susceptibility in psoriasis. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2005;15:349-355.
98.
Saeki H, Asano N, Tsunemi Y, Takekoshi T, Kishimoto M, Mitsui H, Tada Y, Torii H, Komine M, Asahina A, Tamaki K: Polymorphisms of vitamin D receptor gene in Japanese patients with psoriasis vulgaris. J Dermatol Sci 2002;30:167-171.
99.
Bieber T: Atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1483-1494.
100.
Bieber T: Atopic dermatitis. Ann Dermatol 2010;22:125-137.
101.
Le Lamer M, Pellerin L, Reynier M, Cau L, Pendaries V, Leprince C, Mechin MC, Serre G, Paul C, Simon M: Defects of corneocyte structural proteins and epidermal barrier in atopic dermatitis. Biol Chem 2015;396:1163-1179.
102.
Palmer CN, Irvine AD, Terron-Kwiatkowski A, Zhao Y, Liao H, Lee SP, Goudie DR, Sandilands A, Campbell LE, Smith FJ, O'Regan GM, Watson RM, Cecil JE, Bale SJ, Compton JG, DiGiovanna JJ, Fleckman P, Lewis-Jones S, Arseculeratne G, Sergeant A, Munro CS, El Houate B, McElreavey K, Halkjaer LB, Bisgaard H, Mukhopadhyay S, McLean WH: Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis. Nat Genet 2006;38:441-446.
103.
Tokura Y: Extrinsic and intrinsic types of atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol Sci 2010;58:1-7.
104.
Soumelis V, Reche PA, Kanzler H, Yuan W, Edward G, Homey B, Gilliet M, Ho S, Antonenko S, Lauerma A, Smith K, Gorman D, Zurawski S, Abrams J, Menon S, McClanahan T, de Waal-Malefyt Rd R, Bazan F, Kastelein RA, Liu YJ: Human epithelial cells trigger dendritic cell mediated allergic inflammation by producing TSLP. Nat Immunol 2002;3:673-680.
105.
Said A, Weindl G: Regulation of dendritic cell function in inflammation. J Immunol Res 2015;2015:743169.
106.
Kerschenlohr K, Decard S, Przybilla B, Wollenberg A: Atopy patch test reactions show a rapid influx of inflammatory dendritic epidermal cells in patients with extrinsic atopic dermatitis and patients with intrinsic atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;111:869-874.
107.
Gaspar K, Barath S, Nagy G, Mocsai G, Gyimesi E, Szodoray P, Irinyi B, Zeher M, Remenyik E, Szegedi A: Regulatory T-cell subsets with acquired functional impairment: important indicators of disease severity in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 2015;95:151-155.
108.
Ou LS, Goleva E, Hall C, Leung DY: T regulatory cells in atopic dermatitis and subversion of their activity by superantigens. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004;113:756-763.
109.
Lesiak A, Smolewski P, Sobolewska-Sztychny D, Sysa-Jedrzejowska A, Narbutt J: The role of T-regulatory cells and Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 in atopic dermatitis. Scand J Immunol 2012;76:405-410.
110.
Roesner LM, Floess S, Witte T, Olek S, Huehn J, Werfel T: Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells are expanded in severe atopic dermatitis patients. Allergy 2015;70:1656-1660.
111.
Ma L, Xue HB, Guan XH, Shu CM, Wang F, Zhang JH, An RZ: The Imbalance of Th17 cells and CD4(+) CD25(high) Foxp3(+) Treg cells in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2014;28:1079-1086.
112.
Verhagen J, Akdis M, Traidl-Hoffmann C, Schmid-Grendelmeier P, Hijnen D, Knol EF, Behrendt H, Blaser K, Akdis CA: Absence of T-regulatory cell expression and function in atopic dermatitis skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:176-183.
113.
De Benedetto A, Agnihothri R, McGirt LY, Bankova LG, Beck LA: Atopic dermatitis: a disease caused by innate immune defects? J Invest Dermatol 2009;129:14-30.
114.
Hata TR, Gallo RL: Antimicrobial peptides, skin infections, and atopic dermatitis. Semin Cutan Med Surg 2008;27:144-150.
115.
Weiland SK, Husing A, Strachan DP, Rzehak P, Pearce N; ISAAC Phase One Study Group: Climate and the prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and atopic eczema in children. Occup Environ Med 2004;61:609-615.
116.
Schlichte MJ, Vandersall A, Katta R: Diet and eczema: a review of dietary supplements for the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Dermatol Pract Concept 2016;6:23-29.
117.
Cheng HM, Kim S, Park GH, Chang SE, Bang S, Won CH, Lee MW, Choi JH, Moon KC: Low vitamin D levels are associated with atopic dermatitis, but not allergic rhinitis, asthma, or IgE sensitization, in the adult Korean population. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2014;133:1048-1055.
118.
Kang JW, Kim JH, Kim HJ, Lee JG, Yoon JH, Kim CH: Association of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D with serum IgE levels in Korean adults. Auris Nasus Larynx 2016;43:84-88.
119.
Yang AR, Kim YN, Lee BH: Dietary intakes and lifestyle patterns of Korean children and adolescents with atopic dermatitis: using the fourth and fifth Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES IV,V), 2007-11. Ecol Food Nutr 2016;55:50-64.
120.
El Taieb MA, Fayed HM, Aly SS, Ibrahim AK: Assessment of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in children with atopic dermatitis: correlation with SCORAD index. Dermatitis 2013;24:296-301.
121.
Kim MJ, Kim SN, Lee YW, Choe YB, Ahn KJ: Vitamin D status and efficacy of vitamin D supplementation in atopic dermatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 2016;8:E789.
122.
Cheon BR, Shin JE, Kim YJ, Shim JW, Kim DS, Jung HL, Park MS, Shim JY: Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and interleukin-31 levels, and the severity of atopic dermatitis in children. Korean J Pediatr 2015;58:96-101.
123.
Peroni DG, Piacentini GL, Cametti E, Chinellato I, Boner AL: Correlation between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and severity of atopic dermatitis in children. Br J Dermatol 2011;164:1078-1082.
124.
Thuesen BH, Heede NG, Tang L, Skaaby T, Thyssen JP, Friedrich N, Linneberg A: No association between vitamin D and atopy, asthma, lung function or atopic dermatitis: a prospective study in adults. Allergy 2015;70:1501-1504.
125.
Back O, Blomquist HK, Hernell O, Stenberg B: Does vitamin D intake during infancy promote the development of atopic allergy? Acta Derm Venereol 2009;89:28-32.
126.
Miyake Y, Tanaka K, Okubo H, Sasaki S, Arakawa M: Maternal consumption of dairy products, calcium, and vitamin D during pregnancy and infantile allergic disorders. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2014;113:82-87.
127.
Gale CR, Robinson SM, Harvey NC, Javaid MK, Jiang B, Martyn CN, Godfrey KM, Cooper C: Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and child outcomes. Eur J Clin Nutr 2008;62:68-77.
128.
Chiu CY, Huang SY, Peng YC, Tsai MH, Hua MC, Yao TC, Yeh KW, Huang JL: Maternal vitamin D levels are inversely related to allergic sensitization and atopic diseases in early childhood. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2015;26:337-343.
129.
Jones AP, Palmer D, Zhang G, Prescott SL: Cord blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and allergic disease during infancy. Pediatrics 2012;130:e1128-e1135.
130.
Baiz N, Dargent-Molina P, Wark JD, Souberbielle JC, Annesi-Maesano I: Cord serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of early childhood transient wheezing and atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2014;133:147-153.
131.
Stelmach I, Majak P, Jerzynska J, Podlecka D, Stelmach W, Polanska K, Gromadzinska J, Wasowicz W, Hanke W: Cord serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D correlates with early childhood viral-induced wheezing. Respir Med 2015;109:38-43.
132.
Heine G, Hoefer N, Franke A, Nothling U, Schumann RR, Hamann L, Worm M: Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms with severe atopic dermatitis in adults. Br J Dermatol 2013;168:855-858.
133.
Kilic S, Silan F, Hiz MM, Isik S, Ogretmen Z, Ozdemir O: Vitamin D receptor gene BSMI, FOKI, APAI, and TAQI polymorphisms and the risk of atopic dermatitis. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2016;26:106-110.
134.
Hallau J, Hamann L, Schumann RR, Worm M, Heine G: A promoter polymorphism of the vitamin D metabolism gene Cyp24a1 is associated with severe atopic dermatitis in adults. Acta Derm Venereol 2016;96:169-172.
135.
Kim G, Bae JH: Vitamin D and atopic dermatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrition 2016;32:913-920.
136.
Camargo CA Jr, Ganmaa D, Sidbury R, Erdenedelger K, Radnaakhand N, Khandsuren B: Randomized trial of vitamin D supplementation for winter-related atopic dermatitis in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2014;134:831-835 e831.
137.
Amestejani M, Salehi BS, Vasigh M, Sobhkhiz A, Karami M, Alinia H, Kamrava SK, Shamspour N, Ghalehbaghi B, Behzadi AH: Vitamin D supplementation in the treatment of atopic dermatitis: a clinical trial study. J Drugs Dermatol 2012;11:327-330.
138.
Di Filippo P, Scaparrotta A, Rapino D, Cingolani A, Attanasi M, Petrosino MI, Chuang K, Di Pillo S, Chiarelli F: Vitamin D supplementation modulates the immune system and improves atopic dermatitis in children. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2015;166:91-96.
139.
Drozdenko G, Heine G, Worm M: Oral vitamin D increases the frequencies of CD38+ human B cells and ameliorates IL-17-producing T cells. Exp Dermatol 2014;23:107-112.
140.
Yip KH, Kolesnikoff N, Yu C, Hauschild N, Taing H, Biggs L, Goltzman D, Gregory PA, Anderson PH, Samuel MS, Galli SJ, Lopez AF, Grimbaldeston MA: Mechanisms of vitamin D(3) metabolite repression of IgE-dependent mast cell activation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2014;133:1356-1364, e1351-e1314.
141.
Kanda N, Hau CS, Tada Y, Sato S, Watanabe S: Decreased serum LL-37 and vitamin D3 levels in atopic dermatitis: relationship between IL-31 and oncostatin M. Allergy 2012;67:804-812.
142.
Mallbris L, Carlen L, Wei T, Heilborn J, Nilsson MF, Granath F, Stahle M: Injury downregulates the expression of the human cathelicidin protein hCAP18/LL-37 in atopic dermatitis. Exp Dermatol 2010;19:442-449.
143.
Albenali LH, Danby S, Moustafa M, Brown K, Chittock J, Shackley F, Cork MJ: Vitamin D and antimicrobial peptide levels in patients with atopic dermatitis and atopic dermatitis complicated by eczema herpeticum: a pilot study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016;138:1715-1719. e1714.
144.
Büchau AS, MacLeod DT, Morizane S, Kotol PF, Hata T, Gallo RL: Bcl-3 acts as an innate immune modulator by controlling antimicrobial responses in keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2009;129:2148-2155.
145.
Gilaberte Y, Sanmartin R, Aspiroz C, Hernandez-Martin A, Benito D, Sanz-Puertolas P, Alonso M, Torrelo A, Torres C: Correlation between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and virulence genes of Staphylococcus aureus isolates colonizing children with atopic dermatitis. Pediatr Dermatol 2015;32:506-513.
146.
Udompataikul M, Huajai S, Chalermchai T, Taweechotipatr M, Kamanamool N: The effects of oral vitamin D supplement on atopic dermatitis: a clinical trial with Staphylococcus aureus colonization determination. J Med Assoc Thai 2015;98(suppl 9):S23-S30.
147.
Bussmann C, Peng WM, Bieber T, Novak N: Molecular pathogenesis and clinical implications of eczema herpeticum. Expert Rev Mol Med 2008;10:e21.
148.
Li M, Hener P, Zhang Z, Kato S, Metzger D, Chambon P: Topical vitamin D3 and low-calcemic analogs induce thymic stromal lymphopoietin in mouse keratinocytes and trigger an atopic dermatitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:11736-11741.
149.
Leyva-Castillo JM, Hener P, Jiang H, Li M: TSLP produced by keratinocytes promotes allergen sensitization through skin and thereby triggers atopic march in mice. J Invest Dermatol 2013;133:154-163.
150.
Hartmann B, Heine G, Babina M, Steinmeyer A, Zugel U, Radbruch A, Worm M: Targeting the vitamin D receptor inhibits the B cell-dependent allergic immune response. Allergy 2011;66:540-548.
© 2018 S. Karger AG, Basel
2018
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.