Stem cells are a population of undifferentiated cells characterized by the ability to extensively proliferate (self-renewal), usually arise from a single cell (clonal), and differentiate into different types of cells and tissue (potent). There are several sources of stem cells with varying potencies. Pluripotent cells are embryonic stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of the embryo and induced pluripotent cells are formed following reprogramming of somatic cells. Pluripotent cells can differentiate into tissue from all 3 germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm). Multipotent stem cells may differentiate into tissue derived from a single germ layer such as mesenchymal stem cells which form adipose tissue, bone, and cartilage. Tissue-resident stem cells are oligopotent since they can form terminally differentiated cells of a specific tissue. Stem cells can be used in cellular therapy to replace damaged cells or to regenerate organs. In addition, stem cells have expanded our understanding of development as well as the pathogenesis of disease. Disease-specific cell lines can also be propagated and used in drug development. Despite the significant advances in stem cell biology, issues such as ethical controversies with embryonic stem cells, tumor formation, and rejection limit their utility. However, many of these limitations are being bypassed and this could lead to major advances in the management of disease. This review is an introduction to the world of stem cells and discusses their definition, origin, and classification, as well as applications of these cells in regenerative medicine.

Keywords:
Tissue-resident stem cells, Induced pluripotent stem cells, Mesenchymal stem cells
1.
Denham M, Conley B, Olsson F, Cole TJ, Mollard R: Stem cells: an overview. Curr Protoc Cell Biol 2005;23:23.1.
2.
Vats A, Bielby RC, Tolley NS, Nerem R, Polak JM: Stem cells. Lancet 2005;366:592–602.
3.
Lajtha LG: Stem cells and their properties. Proc Can Cancer Conf 1967;7:31–39.
4.
He S, Nakada D, Morrison SJ: Mechanisms of stem cell self-renewal. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2009;25:377–406.
5.
Falanga V: Stem cells in tissue repair and regeneration. J Invest Dermatol 2012;132:1538–1541.
6.
Lane S, Rippon HJ, Bishop AE: Stem cells in lung repair and regeneration. Regen Med 2007;2:407–415.
7.
Fausto N: Liver regeneration and repair: hepatocytes, progenitor cells, and stem cells. Hepatology 2004;39:1477–1487.
8.
Shaker A, Rubin DC: Stem cells: one step closer to gut repair. Nature 2012;485:181–182.
9.
Han W, Yu Y, Liu XY: Local signals in stem cell-based bone marrow regeneration. Cell Res 2006;16:189–195.
10.
Angelini A, Castellani C, Vescovo G, Thiene G: Pathological evidence of stem cell regeneration in the heart. Int J Cardiol 2004;96:499–504.
11.
Mirotsou M, Jayawardena TM, Schmeckpeper J, Gnecchi M, Dzau VJ: Paracrine mechanisms of stem cell reparative and regenerative actions in the heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2011;50:280–289.
12.
Mansergh FC, Wride MA, Rancourt DE: Neurons from stem cells: implications for understanding nervous system development and repair. Biochem Cell Biol 2000;78:613–628.
13.
Bouwens L: Transdifferentiation versus stem cell hypothesis for the regeneration of islet beta-cells in the pancreas. Microsc Res Tech 1998;43:332–336.
14.
Lodi D, Iannitti T, Palmieri B: Stem cells in clinical practice: applications and warnings. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2011;30:9.
15.
Dameshek W: Bone marrow transplantation; a present-day challenge. Blood 1957;12:321–323.
16.
de la Morena MT, Gatti RA: A history of bone marrow transplantation. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2010;30:1–15.
17.
Le BK, Ringden O: Mesenchymal stem cells: properties and role in clinical bone marrow transplantation. Curr Opin Immunol 2006;18:586–591.
18.
Chien KR: Regenerative medicine and human models of human disease. Nature 2008;453:302–305.
19.
Inoue H, Yamanaka S: The use of induced pluripotent stem cells in drug development. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2011;89:655–661.
20.
Fahey MC, Wallace EM: Stem cells: research tools and clinical treatments. J Paediatr Child Health 2011;47:672–675.
21.
McCormick JB, Huso HA: Stem cells and ethics: current issues. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2010;3:122–127.
22.
Xi J, Zhang SC: Stem cells in development of therapeutics for Parkinson’s disease: a perspective. J Cell Biochem 2008;105:1153–1160.
23.
Magga J, Savchenko E, Malm T, Rolova T, Pollari E, Valonen P, Lehtonen S, Jantunen E, Aarnio J, Lehenkari P, Koistinaho M, Muona A, Koistinaho J: Production of monocytic cells from bone marrow stem cells: therapeutic usage in Alzheimer’s disease. J Cell Mol Med 2012;16:1060–1073.
24.
Perin EC, Silva GV, Zheng Y, Gahremanpour A, Canales J, Patel D, Fernandes MR, Keller LH, Quan X, Coulter SA, Moore WH, Herlihy JP, Willerson JT: Randomized, double-blind pilot study of transendocardial injection of autologous aldehyde dehydrogenase-bright stem cells in patients with ischemic heart failure. Am Heart J 2012;163:415–421, 421.e1.
25.
Cerletti M, Jurga S, Witczak CA, Hirshman MF, Shadrach JL, Goodyear LJ, Wagers AJ: Highly efficient, functional engraftment of skeletal muscle stem cells in dystrophic muscles. Cell 2008;134:37–47.
26.
Tzouvelekis A, Koliakos G, Ntolios P, Baira I, Bouros E, Oikonomou A, Zissimopoulos A, Kolios G, Kakagia D, Paspaliaris V, Kotsianidis I, Froudarakis M, Bouros D: Stem cell therapy for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a protocol proposal. J Transl Med 2011;9:182.
27.
Weiss DJ, Bertoncello I, Borok Z, Kim C, Panoskaltsis-Mortari A, Reynolds S, Rojas M, Stripp B, Warburton D, Prockop DJ: Stem cells and cell therapies in lung biology and lung diseases. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2011;8:223–272.
28.
Rashid ST, Corbineau S, Hannan N, Marciniak SJ, Miranda E, Alexander G, Huang-Doran I, Griffin J, Ahrlund-Richter L, Skepper J, Semple R, Weber A, Lomas DA, Vallier L: Modeling inherited metabolic disorders of the liver using human induced pluripotent stem cells. J Clin Invest 2010;120:3127–3136.
29.
Smith A: A glossary for stem-cell biology. Nature 2006;441:1060.
30.
Rossant J: Stem cells from the mammalian blastocyst. Stem Cells 2001;19:477–482.
31.
De Miguel MP, Fuentes-Julian S, Alcaina Y: Pluripotent stem cells: origin, maintenance and induction. Stem Cell Rev 2010;6:633–649.
32.
Evans MJ, Kaufman MH: Establishment in culture of pluripotential cells from mouse embryos. Nature 1981;292:154–156.
33.
Takahashi K, Yamanaka S: Induction of pluripotent stem cells from mouse embryonic and adult fibroblast cultures by defined factors. Cell 2006;126:663–676.
34.
Ratajczak MZ, Zuba-Surma E, Kucia M, Poniewierska A, Suszynska M, Ratajczak J: Pluripotent and multipotent stem cells in adult tissues. Adv Med Sci 2012;57:1–17.
35.
Augello A, Kurth TB, De BC: Mesenchymal stem cells: a perspective from in vitro cultures to in vivo migration and niches. Eur Cell Mater 2010;20:121–133.
36.
Bruder SP, Jaiswal N, Haynesworth SE: Growth kinetics, self-renewal, and the osteogenic potential of purified human mesenchymal stem cells during extensive subcultivation and following cryopreservation. J Cell Biochem 1997;64:278–294.
37.
Prockop DJ: Marrow stromal cells as stem cells for nonhematopoietic tissues. Science 1997;276:71–74.
38.
Friedenstein AJ, Chailakhjan RK, Lalykina KS: The development of fibroblast colonies in monolayer cultures of guinea-pig bone marrow and spleen cells. Cell Tissue Kinet 1970;3:393–403.
39.
Barzilay R, Melamed E, Offen D: Introducing transcription factors to multipotent mesenchymal stem cells: making transdifferentiation possible. Stem Cells 2009;27:2509–2515.
40.
Jarvinen L, Badri L, Wettlaufer S, Ohtsuka T, Standiford TJ, Toews GB, Pinsky DJ, Peters-Golden M, Lama VN: Lung resident mesenchymal stem cells isolated from human lung allografts inhibit T cell proliferation via a soluble mediator. J Immunol 2008;181:4389–4396.
41.
Majo F, Rochat A, Nicolas M, Jaoude GA, Barrandon Y: Oligopotent stem cells are distributed throughout the mammalian ocular surface. Nature 2008;456:250–254.
42.
Marone M, De RD, Bonanno G, Mozzetti S, Rutella S, Scambia G, Pierelli L: Cell cycle regulation in human hematopoietic stem cells: from isolation to activation. Leuk Lymphoma 2002;43:493–501.
43.
Kim CF, Jackson EL, Woolfenden AE, Lawrence S, Babar I, Vogel S, Crowley D, Bronson RT, Jacks T: Identification of bronchioalveolar stem cells in normal lung and lung cancer. Cell 2005;121:823–835.
44.
Overturf K, al-Dhalimy M, Ou CN, Finegold M, Grompe M: Serial transplantation reveals the stem-cell-like regenerative potential of adult mouse hepatocytes. Am J Pathol 1997;151:1273–1280.
45.
de Rooij DG, Grootegoed JA: Spermatogonial stem cells. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1998;10:694–701.
46.
Bentzinger CF, Wang YX, von MJ, Rudnicki MA: The emerging biology of muscle stem cells: implications for cell-based therapies. Bioessays 2012, DOI: 10.1002/bies. 201200063.
47.
Beck B, Blanpain C: Mechanisms regulating epidermal stem cells. EMBO J 2012;31:2067–2075.
48.
Ilic D, Polak JM: Stem cells in regenerative medicine: introduction. Br Med Bull 2011;98:117–126.
49.
Bongso A, Richards M: History and perspective of stem cell research. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2004;18:827–842.
50.
Yao S, Chen S, Clark J, Hao E, Beattie GM, Hayek A, Ding S: Long-term self-renewal and directed differentiation of human embryonic stem cells in chemically defined conditions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:6907–6912.
51.
Bongso A: Blastocyst culture for deriving human embryonic stem cells. Methods Mol Biol 2006;331:13–22.
52.
Hambiliki F, Strom S, Zhang P, Stavreus-Evers A: Co-localization of NANOG and OCT4 in human pre-implantation embryos and in human embryonic stem cells. J Assist Reprod Genet 2012;29:1021–1028.
53.
Wang Z, Oron E, Nelson B, Razis S, Ivanova N: Distinct lineage specification roles for NANOG, OCT4, and SOX2 in human embryonic stem cells. Cell Stem Cell 2012;10:440–454.
54.
Liang J, Wan M, Zhang Y, Gu P, Xin H, Jung SY, Qin J, Wong J, Cooney AJ, Liu D, Songyang Z: Nanog and Oct4 associate with unique transcriptional repression complexes in embryonic stem cells. Nat Cell Biol 2008;10:731–739.
55.
Baharvand H, Ashtiani SK, Valojerdi MR, Shahverdi A, Taee A, Sabour D: Establishment and in vitro differentiation of a new embryonic stem cell line from human blastocyst. Differentiation 2004;72:224–229.
56.
Doetschman TC, Eistetter H, Katz M, Schmidt W, Kemler R: The in vitro development of blastocyst-derived embryonic stem cell lines: formation of visceral yolk sac, blood islands and myocardium. J Embryol Exp Morphol 1985;87:27–45.
57.
Hamazaki T, Iiboshi Y, Oka M, Papst PJ, Meacham AM, Zon LI, Terada N: Hepatic maturation in differentiating embryonic stem cells in vitro. FEBS Lett 2001;497:15–19.
58.
Thoma EC, Maurus K, Wagner TU, Schartl M: Parallel differentiation of embryonic stem cells into different cell types by a single gene-based differentiation system. Cell Reprogram 2012;14:106–111.
59.
Shiroi A, Ueda S, Ouji Y, Saito K, Moriya K, Sugie Y, Fukui H, Ishizaka S, Yoshikawa M: Differentiation of embryonic stem cells into insulin-producing cells promoted by Nkx2.2 gene transfer. World J Gastroenterol 2005;11:4161–4166.
60.
Heydarkhan-Hagvall S, Gluck JM, Delman C, Jung M, Ehsani N, Full S, Shemin RJ: The effect of vitronectin on the differentiation of embryonic stem cells in a 3D culture system. Biomaterials 2012;33:2032–2040.
61.
Moodley Y, Ilancheran S, Samuel C, Vaghjiani V, Atienza D, Williams ED, Jenkin G, Wallace E, Trounson A, Manuelpillai U: Human amnion epithelial cell transplantation abrogates lung fibrosis and augments repair. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010;182:643–651.
62.
Ilancheran S, Moodley Y, Manuelpillai U: Human fetal membranes: a source of stem cells for tissue regeneration and repair? Placenta 2009;30:2–10.
63.
Korbling M, Estrov Z: Adult stem cells for tissue repair – a new therapeutic concept? N Engl J Med 2003;349:570–582.
64.
Chimutengwende-Gordon M, Khan WS: Advances in the use of stem cells and tissue engineering applications in bone repair. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 2012;7:122–126.
65.
Obradovic S, Rusovic S, Balint B, Ristic-Andelkov A, Romanovic R, Baskot B, Vojvodic D, Gligic B: Autologous bone marrow-derived progenitor cell transplantation for myocardial regeneration after acute infarction. Vojnosanit Pregl 2004;61:519–529.
66.
Menasche P, Alfieri O, Janssens S, McKenna W, Reichenspurner H, Trinquart L, Vilquin JT, Marolleau JP, Seymour B, Larghero J, Lake S, Chatellier G, Solomon S, Desnos M, Hagege AA: The Myoblast Autologous Grafting in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy (MAGIC) trial: first randomized placebo-controlled study of myoblast transplantation. Circulation 2008;117:1189–1200.
67.
Meirelles LS, Nardi NB: Methodology, biology and clinical applications of mesenchymal stem cells. Front Biosci 2009;14:4281–4298.
68.
Yeung TY, Seeberger KL, Kin T, Adesida A, Jomha N, Shapiro AM, Korbutt GS: Human mesenchymal stem cells protect human islets from pro-inflammatory cytokines. PLoS One 2012;7:e38189.
69.
Passier R, Mummery C: Origin and use of embryonic and adult stem cells in differentiation and tissue repair. Cardiovasc Res 2003;58:324–335.
70.
Smart N, Riley PR: The stem cell movement. Circ Res 2008;102:1155–1168.
71.
Voog J, Jones DL: Stem cells and the niche: a dynamic duo. Cell Stem Cell 2010;6:103–115.
72.
Kiefer JC: Primer and interviews: the dynamic stem cell niche. Dev Dyn 2011;240:737–743.
73.
Yeung TM, Chia LA, Kosinski CM, Kuo CJ: Regulation of self-renewal and differentiation by the intestinal stem cell niche. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011;68:2513–2523.
74.
Wagers AJ: The stem cell niche in regenerative medicine. Cell Stem Cell 2012;10:362–369.
75.
He XC, Zhang J, Tong WG, Tawfik O, Ross J, Scoville DH, Tian Q, Zeng X, He X, Wiedemann LM, Mishina Y, Li L: BMP signaling inhibits intestinal stem cell self-renewal through suppression of Wnt-beta-catenin signaling. Nat Genet 2004;36:1117–1121.
76.
Kulkarni V, Khadilkar RJ, Magadi SS, Inamdar MS: Asrij maintains the stem cell niche and controls differentiation during Drosophila lymph gland hematopoiesis. PLoS One 2011;6:e27667.
77.
Snippert HJ, Clevers H: Tracking adult stem cells. EMBO Rep 2011;12:113–122.
78.
Daniela F, Vescovi AL, Bottai D: The stem cells as a potential treatment for neurodegeneration. Methods Mol Biol 2007;399:199–213.
79.
Jessell TM, Melton DA: Diffusible factors in vertebrate embryonic induction. Cell 1992;68:257–270.
80.
Tsai RY, McKay RD: Cell contact regulates fate choice by cortical stem cells. J Neurosci 2000;20:3725–3735.
81.
Young TH, Hung CH: Behavior of embryonic rat cerebral cortical stem cells on the PVA and EVAL substrates. Biomaterials 2005;26:4291–4299.
82.
Ruoslahti E: Stretching is good for a cell. Science 1997;276:1345–1346.
83.
Streuli C: Extracellular matrix remodelling and cellular differentiation. Curr Opin Cell Biol 1999;11:634–640.
84.
Knoblich JA: Asymmetric cell division during animal development. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2001;2:11–20.
85.
Morrison SJ, Kimble J: Asymmetric and symmetric stem-cell divisions in development and cancer. Nature 2006;441:1068–1074.
86.
Yamashita YM: Cell adhesion in regulation of asymmetric stem cell division. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2010;22:605–610.
87.
Neumuller RA, Knoblich JA: Dividing cellular asymmetry: asymmetric cell division and its implications for stem cells and cancer. Genes Dev 2009;23:2675–2699.
88.
Horvitz HR, Herskowitz I: Mechanisms of asymmetric cell division: two Bs or not two Bs, that is the question. Cell 1992;68:237–255.
89.
Knoblich JA: Mechanisms of asymmetric stem cell division. Cell 2008;132:583–597.
90.
Rossant J: Stem cells and early lineage development. Cell 2008;132:527–531.
91.
Takahashi K, Tanabe K, Ohnuki M, Narita M, Ichisaka T, Tomoda K, Yamanaka S: Induction of pluripotent stem cells from adult human fibroblasts by defined factors. Cell 2007;131:861–872.
92.
Wernig M, Meissner A, Foreman R, Brambrink T, Ku M, Hochedlinger K, Bernstein BE, Jaenisch R: In vitro reprogramming of fibroblasts into a pluripotent ES-cell-like state. Nature 2007;448:318–324.
93.
Ebben JD, Zorniak M, Clark PA, Kuo JS: Introduction to induced pluripotent stem cells: advancing the potential for personalized medicine. World Neurosurg 2011;76:270–275.
94.
Pietronave S, Prat M: Advances and applications of induced pluripotent stem cells. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2012;90:317–325.
95.
Kim JB, Zaehres H, Wu G, Gentile L, Ko K, Sebastiano V, Arauzo-Bravo MJ, Ruau D, Han DW, Zenke M, Scholer HR: Pluripotent stem cells induced from adult neural stem cells by reprogramming with two factors. Nature 2008;454:646–650.
96.
Kim JB, Sebastiano V, Wu G, Arauzo-Bravo MJ, Sasse P, Gentile L, Ko K, Ruau D, Ehrich M, van den Boom D, Meyer J, Hubner K, Bernemann C, Ortmeier C, Zenke M, Fleischmann BK, Zaehres H, Scholer HR: Oct4-induced pluripotency in adult neural stem cells. Cell 2009;136:411–419.
97.
Stadtfeld M, Nagaya M, Utikal J, Weir G, Hochedlinger K: Induced pluripotent stem cells generated without viral integration. Science 2008;322:945–949.
98.
Okita K, Nakagawa M, Hyenjong H, Ichisaka T, Yamanaka S: Generation of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells without viral vectors. Science 2008;322:949–953.
99.
Kaji K, Norrby K, Paca A, Mileikovsky M, Mohseni P, Woltjen K: Virus-free induction of pluripotency and subsequent excision of reprogramming factors. Nature 2009;458:771–775.
100.
Woltjen K, Michael IP, Mohseni P, Desai R, Mileikovsky M, Hamalainen R, Cowling R, Wang W, Liu P, Gertsenstein M, Kaji K, Sung HK, Nagy A: piggyBac transposition reprograms fibroblasts to induced pluripotent stem cells. Nature 2009;458:766–770.
101.
Daley GQ: Stem cells: roadmap to the clinic. J Clin Invest 2010;120:8–10.
102.
Kroon E, Martinson LA, Kadoya K, Bang AG, Kelly OG, Eliazer S, Young H, Richardson M, Smart NG, Cunningham J, Agulnick AD, D’Amour KA, Carpenter MK, Baetge EE: Pancreatic endoderm derived from human embryonic stem cells generates glucose-responsive insulin-secreting cells in vivo. Nat Biotechnol 2008;26:443–452.
103.
Trivedi HL, Vanikar AV, Thakker U, Firoze A, Dave SD, Patel CN, Patel JV, Bhargava AB, Shankar V: Human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells combined with hematopoietic stem cell transplantation synthesize insulin. Transplant Proc 2008;40:1135–1139.
104.
Gratwohl A, Heim D: Current role of stem cell transplantation in chronic myeloid leukaemia. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2009;22:431–443.
105.
Hackanson B, Waller CF: Long-term follow-up of patients with chronic myeloid leukemia having received autologous stem cell transplantation. Ann Hematol 2011;90:395–399.
106.
Kuo TK, Hung SP, Chuang CH, Chen CT, Shih YR, Fang SC, Yang VW, Lee OK: Stem cell therapy for liver disease: parameters governing the success of using bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Gastroenterology 2008;134:2111–2121, 2121.e1–3.
107.
Pai M, Zacharoulis D, Milicevic MN, Helmy S, Jiao LR, Levicar N, Tait P, Scott M, Marley SB, Jestice K, Glibetic M, Bansi D, Khan SA, Kyriakou D, Rountas C, Thillainayagam A, Nicholls JP, Jensen S, Apperley JF, Gordon MY, Habib NA: Autologous infusion of expanded mobilized adult bone marrow-derived CD34+ cells into patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:1952–1958.
108.
Tzouvelekis A, Antoniadis A, Bouros D: Stem cell therapy in pulmonary fibrosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2011;17:368–373.
109.
Banerjee ER, Laflamme MA, Papayannopoulou T, Kahn M, Murry CE, Henderson WR Jr: Human embryonic stem cells differentiated to lung lineage-specific cells ameliorate pulmonary fibrosis in a xenograft transplant mouse model. PLoS One 2012;7:e33165.
110.
Cassinotti A, Annaloro C, Ardizzone S, Onida F, Della VA, Clerici M, Usardi P, Greco S, Maconi G, Porro GB, Deliliers GL: Autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation without CD34+ cell selection in refractory Crohn’s disease. Gut 2008;57:211–217.
111.
Oyama Y, Craig RM, Traynor AE, Quigley K, Statkute L, Halverson A, Brush M, Verda L, Kowalska B, Krosnjar N, Kletzel M, Whitington PF, Burt RK: Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in patients with refractory Crohn’s disease. Gastroenterology 2005;128:552–563.
112.
Hagege AA, Marolleau JP, Vilquin JT, Alheritiere A, Peyrard S, Duboc D, Abergel E, Messas E, Mousseaux E, Schwartz K, Desnos M, Menasche P: Skeletal myoblast transplantation in ischemic heart failure: long-term follow-up of the first phase I cohort of patients. Circulation 2006;114:I108–I113.
113.
Burt RK, Loh Y, Cohen B, Stefoski D, Balabanov R, Katsamakis G, Oyama Y, Russell EJ, Stern J, Muraro P, Rose J, Testori A, Bucha J, Jovanovic B, Milanetti F, Storek J, Voltarelli JC, Burns WH: Autologous non-myeloablative haemopoietic stem cell transplantation in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a phase I/II study. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:244–253.
114.
Bjorklund LM, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Chung S, Andersson T, Chen IY, McNaught KS, Brownell AL, Jenkins BG, Wahlestedt C, Kim KS, Isacson O: Embryonic stem cells develop into functional dopaminergic neurons after transplantation in a Parkinson rat model. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:2344–2349.
115.
Mackay-Sim A, Feron F, Cochrane J, Bassingthwaighte L, Bayliss C, Davies W, Fronek P, Gray C, Kerr G, Licina P, Nowitzke A, Perry C, Silburn PA, Urquhart S, Geraghty T: Autologous olfactory ensheathing cell transplantation in human paraplegia: a 3-year clinical trial. Brain 2008;131:2376–2386.
116.
Lindvall O, Kokaia Z: Stem cells for the treatment of neurological disorders. Nature 2006;441:1094–1096.
117.
Rabinovich SS, Seledtsov VI, Banul NV, Poveshchenko OV, Senyukov VV, Astrakov SV, Samarin DM, Taraban VY: Cell therapy of brain stroke. Bull Exp Biol Med 2005;139:126–128.
118.
Le BK, Frassoni F, Ball L, Locatelli F, Roelofs H, Lewis I, Lanino E, Sundberg B, Bernardo ME, Remberger M, Dini G, Egeler RM, Bacigalupo A, Fibbe W, Ringden O: Mesenchymal stem cells for treatment of steroid-resistant, severe, acute graft-versus-host disease: a phase II study. Lancet 2008;371:1579–1586.
119.
Nasef A, Ashammakhi N, Fouillard L: Immunomodulatory effect of mesenchymal stromal cells: possible mechanisms. Regen Med 2008;3:531–546.
120.
Filip S, Mokry J, Horacek J, English D: Stem cells and the phenomena of plasticity and diversity: a limiting property of carcinogenesis. Stem Cells Dev 2008;17:1031–1038.
121.
Cunningham JJ, Ulbright TM, Pera MF, Looijenga LH: Lessons from human teratomas to guide development of safe stem cell therapies. Nat Biotechnol 2012;30:849–857.
122.
Zarzeczny A, Caulfield T: Emerging ethical, legal and social issues associated with stem cell research and the current role of the moral status of the embryo. Stem Cell Rev 2009;5:96–101.
© 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel
2012
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.