Abstract
Introduction: The mirror-gazing task (MGT) is an experimental paradigm inducing anomalous perceptions and anomalous experiences of self-face (ASEs) in the general population, ranging from changes in light and color, to face deformation, to experiencing one’s specular image as another identity. Subclinical ASEs have been related to the emergence of the risk for developing psychotic disorders, and inducing such states in the general population could shed light on the factors underlying interindividual differences in proneness to these phenomena. We aimed to examine the influence of schizotypal personality traits on proneness to experiencing induced ASEs from a developmental perspective, from childhood to adulthood. Methods: Two hundred and sixteen children, adolescents, and young adults participated in the MGT, and their schizotypal personality traits were assessed with the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. Statistical analyses assessed the relationship between schizotypy dimensions and induced ASEs, and we further tested their dynamic relationship as function of age (from childhood to adulthood). Results: Results confirmed the developmental trajectory of the different schizotypy dimensions, with scores peaking during adolescence, and proneness to induced ASEs seemed to follow a similar developmental trajectory. Moreover, positive (p = 0.001) and disorganized (p = 0.004) dimensions were found to contribute to the proneness to experiencing induced ASEs. Finally, the developmental model showed that positive schizotypy (p = 0.035) uniquely distinguished between experiencing other-identity phenomena between childhood and adulthood. Conclusion: This study has the potential to inform research on early detection of psychosis through a developmental approach and links the concept of schizotypy with processes of perceptual self-distortions.
References
1.
Harrington
A
, Oepen
G
, Spitzer
M
. Disordered recognition and perception of human faces in acute schizophrenia and experimental psychosis
. Compr Psychiatry
. 1989
;30
(5
):376
–84
. .2.
Maher
BA
. Anomalous experience in everyday life: its significance for psychopathology
. Monist
. 1999
;82
(4
):547
–70
.3.
Raballo
A
, Parnas
J
. The silent side of the spectrum: schizotypy and the schizotaxic self
. Schizophr Bull
. 2011
;37
(5
):1017
–26
. .4.
Caputo
GB
. Apparitional experiences of new faces and dissociation of self-identity during mirror gazing
. Percept Mot Skills
. 2010
;110
(3C
):1125
–38
. .5.
Caputo
GB
, Ferrucci
R
, Bortolomasi
M
, Giacopuzzi
M
, Priori
A
, Zago
S
. Visual perception during mirror gazing at one’s own face in schizophrenia
. Schizophr Res
. 2012
;140
(1–3
):46
–50
. .6.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Badoud
D
, Antico
L
, Caputo
GB
, Eliez
S
, Schwartz
S
, Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusion and schizotypy during adolescence
. Schizophr Bull
. 2015
;41
(2
):S475
-82
. .7.
Meehl
PE
. Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia
. Am Psychol
. 1962
;17
(12
):827
–38
. .8.
Claridge
G
, Beech
T
. Fully and quasi-dimensional constructions of schizotypy
. In: Raine
A
, Lencz
T
, Mednick
SA
, editors. Schizotypal personality
: Cambridge University Press
; 1995
. p. 192
–216
. .9.
Van Os
J
, Jones
PB
. Neuroticism as a risk factor for schizophrenia
. Psychol Med
. 2001
;31
(6
):1129
–34
. .10.
Cadenhead
KS
, Braff
DL
. Endophenotyping schizotypy: a prelude to genetic studies within the schizophrenia spectrum
. Schizophr Res
. 2002
;54
(1–2
):47
–57
. .11.
Barrantes-Vidal
N
, Grant
P
, Kwapil
TR
. The role of schizotypy in the study of the etiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders
. Schizophr Bull
. 2015
;41
(2
):S408
–16
. .12.
Raine
A
, Reynolds
C
, Lencz
T
, Scerbo
A
, Triphon
N
, Kim
D
. Cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal, and disorganized features of schizotypal personality
. Schizophr Bull
. 1994
;20
(1
):191
–201
. .13.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Paíno-Piñeiro
M
, Lemos-Giráldez
S
, Villazón-García
Ú
, Muñiz
J
. Validation of the schizotypal personality questionnaire: brief form in adolescents
. Schizophr Res
. 2009
;111
(1–3
):53
–60
.14.
Nelson
B
, Thompson
A
, Yung
AR
. Basic self-disturbance predicts psychosis onset in the ultra high risk for psychosis “prodromal” population
. Schizophr Bull
. 2012
;38
(6
):1277
–87
. .15.
Barrantes-Vidal
N
, Grant
P
, Kwapil
TR
. The role of schizotypy in the study of the etiology of schizophrenia spectrum disorders
. Schizophr Bull
. 2015
;41
(2
):S408
–16
. .16.
Cicero
DC
. Measurement invariance of the schizotypal personality questionnaire in Asian, pacific islander, white, and multiethnic populations
. Psychol Assess
. 2016
;28
(4
):351
–61
. .17.
Davidson
CA
, Hoffman
L
, Spaulding
WD
. Schizotypal personality questionnaire--brief revised (updated): An update of norms, factor structure, and item content in a large non-clinical young adult sample
. Psychiatry Res
. 2016
;238
:345
–55
. .18.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Debbané
M
, Ortuño-Sierra
J
, Chan
RCK
, Cicero
DC
, Zhang
LC
, The structure of schizotypal personality traits: a cross-national study
. Psychol Med
. 2018
;48
(3
):451
–62
.19.
Reynolds
CA
, Raine
A
, Mellingen
K
, Venables
PH
, Mednick
SA
. Three-factor model of schizotypal personality: invariance across culture, gender, religious affiliation, family adversity, and psychopathology
. Schizophr Bull
. 2000
;26
(3
):603
–18
. .20.
Derome
M
, Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Badoud
D
, Morosan
L
, Van De Ville
D
, Lazeyras
F
, Resting-state networks of adolescents experiencing depersonalization-like illusions: cross-sectional and longitudinal findings
. Schizophr Bull
. 2018
.21.
Nordgaard
J
, Parnas
J
. Self-disorders and the schizophrenia spectrum: a study of 100 first hospital admissions
. Schizophr Bull
. 2014
;40
(6
):1300
–7
. .22.
Merckelbach
H
, Rassin
E
, Muris
P
. Dissociation, schizotypy, and fantasy proneness in undergraduate students
. J Nerv Ment Dis
. 2000
;188
(7
):428
–31
. .23.
Pope
CA
, Kwapil
TR
. Dissociative experience in hypothetically psychosis-prone college students
. J Nerv Ment Dis
. 2000
;188
(8
):530
–6
. .24.
Simeon
D
. Depersonalisation disorder: a contemporary overview
. CNS Drugs
. 2004
;18
(6
):343
–54
. .25.
Badoud
D
, Chanal
J
, Van der Linden
M
, Eliez
S
, Debbané
M
. Validation de la version française du questionnaire de personnalité schizotypique de Raine dans la population adolescente : étude de la structure factorielle
. L’Encéphale
. 2011
;37
(4
):299
–307
.26.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Lemos-Giráldez
S
, Muñiz
J
, García-Cueto
E
, Campillo-Alvarez
A
. Schizotypy in adolescence: the role of gender and age
. J Nerv Ment Dis
. 2008
;196
(2
):161
–5
. 27.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Fumero
A
, Paino
M
, de Miguel
A
, Ortuño-Sierra
J
, Lemos-Giráldez
S
, Schizotypal personality questionnaire: new sources of validity evidence in college students
. Psychiatry Res
. 2014
;219
(1
):214
–20
. .28.
Ortuño-Sierra
J
, Badoud
D
, Knecht
F
, Paino
M
, Eliez
S
, Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Testing measurement invariance of the schizotypal personality questionnaire-brief scores across Spanish and Swiss adolescents
. PLoS One
. 2013
;8
(12
):e82041
.29.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Debbané
M
, Ortuño-Sierra
J
, Chan
RCK
, Cicero
DC
, Zhang
LC
, The structure of schizotypal personality traits: a cross-national study
. Psychol Med
. 2018
;48
(3
):451
–62
.30.
Raine
A
, Fung
AL
, Lam
BY
. Peer victimization partially mediates the schizotypy-aggression relationship in children and adolescents
. Schizophr Bull
. 2011
;37
(5
):937
–45
. .31.
International Test Commission
. The ITC guidelines for translating and adapting tests
. 2nd ed. 2017
. Available from: http://www.intestcom.org/.32.
Şimşek
GG
, Noyan
F
. McDonald’s ω, Cronbach’s α, and Generalized θ for composite reliability of common factors structures
. Commun Stat Simul Comput
. 2013
;42
(9
):2008
–25
.33.
Liu
J
, Wong
KK-Y
, Dong
F
, Raine
A
, Tuvblad
C
. The schizotypal personality questionnaire – child (SPQ-C): psychometric properties and relations to behavioral problems with multi-informant ratings
. Psychiatry Res
. 2019
;275
:204
–11
.34.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Ortuño-Sierra
J
, Paino
M
, Lemos
S
, Muñiz
J
. Experiencias esquizotípicas en la adolescencia: propiedades psicométricas del schizotypal personality questionnaire-child
. An Psicol
. 2015
;31
(2
):414
.35.
Raballo
A
, Pappagallo
E
, Dell’ Erba
A
, Lo Cascio
N
, Patane’
M
, Gebhardt
E
, Self-disorders and clinical high risk for psychosis: an empirical study in help-seeking youth attending community mental health facilities
. Schizophr Bull
. 2016
;42
(4
):926
–32
. .36.
Kwapil
TR
, Barrantes-Vidal
N
. Schizotypy: looking back and moving forward
. Schizophr Bull
. 2015
;41
(2
):S366
–73
. .37.
Debbané
M
, Barrantes-Vidal
N
. Schizotypy from a developmental perspective
. Schizophr Bull
. 2015
;41
(2
):S386
–S395
.38.
Linscott
RJ
, van Os
J
. An updated and conservative systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological evidence on psychotic experiences in children and adults: on the pathway from proneness to persistence to dimensional expression across mental disorders
. Psychol Med
. 2013
;43
(6
):1133
–49
. .39.
40.
Gross
GM
, Mellin
J
, Silvia
PJ
, Barrantes-Vidal
N
, Kwapil
TR
. Comparing the factor structure of the Wisconsin Schizotypy scales and the schizotypal personality questionnaire
. Personal Disord
. 2014
;5
(4
):397
–405
. .41.
Fonseca-Pedrero
E
, Debbané
M
, Rodríguez-Testal
JF
, Cohen
AS
, Docherty
AR
, Ortuño-Sierra
J
. Schizotypy: the way ahead
. Psicothema
. 2021
;33
(1
):16
–27
. .© 2021 S. Karger AG, Basel
2021
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.
