Background: The availability of new therapeutic approaches, particularly intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) therapies, has prompted significant changes to the established treatment paradigms for retinal vein occlusion (RVO). Better visual outcomes and significantly lower rates of adverse events have been noted in multiple large randomized clinical trials and have led to a new standard of care for this sight-threatening condition. Objective: To develop an expert consensus for the management of RVO and associated complications in the context of recent clinical evidence. Methods: The development of a Canadian expert consensus for optimal treatment began with a review of clinical evidence, daily practice, and existing treatment guidelines and algorithms. The expert clinicians (11 Canadian retina specialists) met on February 1, 2014, in Toronto to discuss their findings and to propose strategies for consensus. Results: The result of this expert panel is a consensus proposal for Canadian ophthalmologists and retina specialists treating patients presenting with RVO. Treatment algorithms specific to branch and central RVO (BRVO and CRVO) were also developed. Conclusions: The consensus provides guidelines to aid clinicians in managing RVO and associated complications in their daily practice. In summary, laser remains the therapy of choice when neovascularization secondary to RVO is detected. Adjunctive anti-VEGF could be considered in managing neovascularization secondary to RVO in cases of vitreous hemorrhage. Intravitreal anti-VEGF should be considered for symptomatic visual loss associated with center-involving macular edema on optical coherence tomography. Patients with BRVO and a suboptimal response to anti-VEGF could be treated with grid laser, and those with CRVO and an inadequate response to anti-VEGF may be candidates for intravitreal steroids.

Keywords:
Retinal vein occlusion, Neovascularization, Retina, Laser, Vascular endothelial growth factor, Algorithms, Canadian expert consensus
1.
Rogers SL, McIntosh RL, Lim L, et al: Natural history of branch retinal vein occlusion: an evidence-based systematic review. Ophthalmology 2010;117:1094-1101.
2.
Cugati S, Wang JJ, Rochtchina E, Mitchell P: Ten-year incidence of retinal vein occlusion in an older population: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 2006;124:726-732.
3.
Klein R, Moss SE, Meuer SM, Klein BE: The 15-year cumulative incidence of retinal vein occlusion: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 2008;126:513-518.
4.
Rogers S, McIntosh RL, Cheung N, et al: The prevalence of retinal vein occlusion: pooled data from population studies from the United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia. Ophthalmology 2010;117:313-319.
5.
Jaulim A, Ahmed B, Khanam T, Chatziralli IP: Branch retinal vein occlusion: epidemiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, clinical features, diagnosis, and complications. An update of the literature. Retina 2013;33:901-910.
6.
London NJ, Brown G: Update and review of central retinal vein occlusion. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2011;22:159-165.
7.
Rehak J, Rehak M: Branch retinal vein occlusion: pathogenesis, visual prognosis, and treatment modalities. Curr Eye Res 2008;33:111-131.
8.
Fraenkl SA, Mozaffarieh M, Flammer J: Retinal vein occlusions: the potential impact of a dysregulation of the retinal veins. EPMA J 2010;1:253-261.
9.
Yoshimura T, Sonoda KH, Sugahara M, et al: Comprehensive analysis of inflammatory immune mediators in vitreoretinal diseases. PLoS One 2009;4:e8158.
10.
Noma H, Funatsu H, Yamasaki M, et al: Pathogenesis of macular edema with branch retinal vein occlusion and intraocular levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6. Am J Ophthalmol 2005;140:256-261.
11.
Noma H, Funatsu H, Yamasaki M, et al: Aqueous humour levels of cytokines are correlated to vitreous levels and severity of macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Eye 2008;22:42-48.
12.
Noma H, Funatsu H, Mimura T, Harino S, Sone T, Hori S: Increase of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6 in the aqueous humour of patients with macular edema and central retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol 2010;88:646-651.
13.
Noma H, Funatsu H, Mimura T, Harino S, Hori S: Vitreous levels of interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor in macular edema with central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2009;116:87-93.
14.
Boyd SR, Zachary I, Chakravarthy U, et al: Correlation of increased vascular endothelial growth factor with neovascularization and permeability in ischemic central vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 2002;120:1644-1650.
15.
Campochiaro PA, Bhisitkul RB, Shapiro H, Rubio RG: Vascular endothelial growth factor promotes progressive retinal nonperfusion in patients with retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2013;120:795-802.
16.
Cunha-Vaz J: Retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmologica 2011;226:3.
17.
David R, Zangwill L, Badarna M, Yassur Y: Epidemiology of retinal vein occlusion and its association with glaucoma and increased intraocular pressure. Ophthalmologica 1988;197:69-74.
18.
Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P: Incidence of various types of retinal vein occlusion and their recurrence and demographic characteristics. Am J Ophthalmol 1994;117:429-441.
19.
Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group: Argon laser scatter photocoagulation for prevention of neovascularization and vitreous hemorrhage in branch vein occlusion. A randomized clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol 1986;104:34-41.
20.
Cheung N, Klein R, Wang JJ, et al: Traditional and novel cardiovascular risk factors for retinal vein occlusion: the multiethnic study of atherosclerosis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008;49:4297-4302.
21.
Sofi F, Marcucci R, Fedi S, et al: High lipoprotein (a) levels are associated with an increased risk of retinal vein occlusion. Atherosclerosis 2010;210:278-281.
22.
Di Capua M, Coppola A, Albisinni R, et al: Cardiovascular risk factors and outcome in patients with retinal vein occlusion. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2010;30:16-22.
23.
Turello M, Pasca S, Daminato R, et al: Retinal vein occlusion: evaluation of ‘classic' and ‘emerging' risk factors and treatment. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2010;29:459-464.
24.
O'Mahoney PR, Wong DT, Ray JG: Retinal vein occlusion and traditional risk factors for atherosclerosis. Arch Ophthalmol 2008;126:692-699.
25.
Werther W, Chu L, Holekamp N, Do DV, Rubio RG: Myocardial infarction and cerebrovascular accident in patients with retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 2011;129:326-331.
26.
Farahvash MS, Moradimogadam M, Farahvash MM, et al: Dalteparin versus aspirin in recent-onset branch retinal vein occlusion: a randomized clinical trial. Arch Iran Med 2008;11:418-422.
27.
Ageno W, Cattaneo R, Manfredi E, et al: Parnaparin versus aspirin in the treatment of retinal vein occlusion. A randomized, double blind, controlled study. Thromb Res 2010;125:137-141.
28.
Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky P: Hematologic abnormalities associated with various types of retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2002;240:180-196.
29.
Rehak M, Krcova V, Slavik L, et al: The role of thrombophilia in patients with retinal vein occlusion and no systemic risk factors. Can J Ophthalmol 2010;45:171-175.
30.
Brown DM: New directions in RVO treatment. Retina Today 2010(suppl):3-7.
31.
Scott IU, Blodi BA, Ip MS, Vanveldhuisen PC, et al; SCORE Study Investigator Group: SCORE Study Report 2: interobserver agreement between investigator and reading center classification of retinal vein occlusion type. Ophthalmology 2009;116:756-761.
32.
Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB: Ocular neovascularization associated with central and hemicentral retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2012;32:1553-1565.
33.
A randomized clinical trial of early panretinal photocoagulation for ischemic central vein occlusion. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group N report. Ophthalmology 1995;102:1434-1444.
34.
Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB: Hemicentral retinal vein occlusion: natural history of visual outcome. Retina 2012;32:68-76.
35.
Hayreh S: Prevalent misconceptions about acute retinal vascular occlusive disorders. Prog Retinal Eye Res 2005;24:493-519.
36.
Hamid S, Mirza SA, Shokh I: Anatomic pattern of arteriovenous crossings in branch retinal vein occlusion. J Pak Med Assoc 2008;58:233-236.
37.
Hayreh SS, Rojas P, Podhajsky P, Montague P, Woolson RF: Ocular neovascularization with retinal vascular occlusion-III. Incidence of ocular neovascularization with retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 1983;90:488-506.
38.
Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB: Branch retinal vein occlusion: natural history of visual outcome. JAMA Ophthalmol 2014;132:13-22.
39.
Ehlers JP, Fekrat S: Retinal vein occlusion: beyond the acute event. Surv Ophthalmol 2011;56:281-299.
40.
Kruger-Leite E, Jalkh AE, Avila MP, Trempe CL: Central visual field in patients with retinal branch vein occlusion. Ann Ophthalmol 1985;17:622-623.
41.
Parodi MB, Bandello F: Branch retinal vein occlusion: classification and treatment. Ophthalmologica 2009;223:298-305.
42.
Jonas J, Paques M, Monés J, Glacet-Bernard A: Retinal vein occlusions. Dev Ophthalmol 2010;47:111-135.
43.
Jefferies P, Clemett R, Day T: An anatomical study of retinal arteriovenous crossings and their role in the pathogenesis of retinal branch vein occlusions. Aust NZJ Ophthalmol 1993;21:213-217.
44.
Hvarfner C, Andreasson S, Larsson J: Multifocal electroretinography and fluorescein angiography in retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2006;26:292-296.
45.
Ota M, Tsujikawa A, Murakami T, et al: Association between integrity of foveal photoreceptor layer and visual acuity in branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol 2007;91:1644-1649.
46.
Hayreh SS, Zimmerman MB, Podhajsky PA: Retinal vein occlusion and the optic disk. Retina 2012;32:2108-2118.
47.
The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group: Natural history and clinical management of central retinal vein occlusion. Arch Ophthalmol 1997;115:486-491.
48.
Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman MB: Natural history of visual outcome in central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2011;118:119-133.
49.
The Branch Vein Occlusion Study Group: Argon laser photocoagulation for macular edema in branch vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 1984;98:271-282.
50.
Deramo VA, Cox TA, Syed AB, Lee PP, Fekrat S: Vision-related quality of life in people with central retinal vein occlusion using the 25-item National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire. Arch Ophthalmol 2003;121:1297-1302.
51.
Awdeh RM, Elsing SH, Deramo VA, Stinnett S, Lee PP, Fekrat S: Vision-related quality of life in persons with unilateral branch retinal vein occlusion using the 25-item National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire. Br J Ophthalmol 2010;94:319-323.
52.
Cugati S, Wang JJ, Knudtson MD, et al: Retinal vein occlusion and vascular mortality pooled data analysis of 2 population-based cohorts. Ophthalmology 2007;114:520-524.
53.
Fekrat S, Shea AM, Hammill BG, et al: Resource use and costs of branch and central retinal vein occlusion in the elderly. Curr Med Res Opin 2010;26:223-230.
54.
Epstein DL, Algvere PV, von Wendt G, Seregard S, Kvanta A: Bevacizumab for macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion: a prospective, randomized, double-masked clinical study. Ophthalmology 2012;119:1184-1189.
55.
Epstein DL, Algvere PV, von Wendt G, Seregard S, Kvanta A: Benefit from bevacizumab for macular edema in central retinal vein occlusion: twelve-month results of a prospective, randomized study. Ophthalmology 2012;119:2587-2591.
56.
Ramezani A, Esfandiari H, Entezari M, et al: Three intravitreal bevacizumab versus two intravitreal triamcinolone injections in recent-onset branch retinal vein occlusion. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2012;259:1149-1160.
57.
Russo V, Barone A, Conte E, Prascina F, Stella A, Noci ND: Bevacizumab compared with macular laser grid photocoagulation for cystoids macular edema in branch retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2009;29:511-515.
58.
Campochiaro PA, Heier JS, Feiner L, et al; BRAVO Investigators: Ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: six-month primary end point results of a phase III study. Ophthalmology 2010;117:1102-1112.
59.
Brown DM, Campochiaro PA, Singh RP, et al; CRUISE Investigators: Ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion: six-month primary end point results of a phase III study. Ophthalmology 2010;117:1124-1133.
60.
Campochiaro PA, Brown DM, Awh CC, et al: Sustained benefits from ranibizumab for macular edema following central retinal vein occlusion: twelve-month outcomes of a phase III study. Ophthalmology 2011;118:2041-2049.
61.
Brown DM, Campochiaro PA, Bhisitkul RB, et al: Sustained benefits from ranibizumab for macular edema following branch retinal vein occlusion: 12-month outcomes of a phase III study. Ophthalmology 2011;118:1594-1602.
62.
Heier JS, Campochiaro PA, Yau L, et al: Ranibizumab for macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion: Long-term follow-up in the HORIZON trial. Ophthalmology 2012;119:802-809.
63.
Bhisitkul RB, Campochiaro PA, Shapiro H, Rubio RG: Predictive value in retinal vein occlusions of early versus late or incomplete ranibizumab response defined by optical coherence tomography. Ophthalmology 2013;120:1057-1063.
64.
Varma R, Bressler NM, Suñer I, et al; BRAVO and CRUISE Study Groups: Improved vision-related function after ranibizumab for macular edema after retinal vein occlusion: results from the BRAVO and CRUISE trials. Ophthalmology 2012;119:2108-2118.
65.
Suñer IJ, Bressler NM, Varma R, et al: Reading speed improvements in retinal vein occlusion after ranibizumab treatment. JAMA Ophthalmol 2013;131:851-856.
66.
Gerding H, Boscia F, Mones JM, et al: Ranibizumab ± adjunctive laser vs laser in patients with visual impairment due to macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO): Design and baseline characteristics of the BRIGHTER study (abstract 607-B0134). ARVO Annu Meet, Orlando, May 2014.
67.
Tadayoni R, Boscia F, Gerding H, et al: BRIGHTER: Ranibizumab with or without adjunctive laser vs laser alone in patients with visual impairment due to macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion (BRVO) (abstract FP-FR-20). World Ophthalmol Congr, Tokyo, April 2014.
68.
Boscia F, Gerding H, Pearce IA, et al: Efficacy and safety of ranibizumab 0.5 mg in patients with visual impairment due to macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: Design and baseline characteristics of the CRYSTAL study (abstract 606-B0133). ARVO Annu Meet, Orlando, May 2014.
69.
Boyer D, Heier J, Brown DM, et al: Vascular endothelial growth factor trap-eye for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: six-month results of the phase 3 COPERNICUS study. Ophthalmology 2012;119:1024-1032.
70.
Holz FG, Roider J, Ogura Y, et al: VEGF trap-eye for macular oedema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: 6-month results of the phase III GALILEO study. Br J Ophthalmol 2013;97:278-284.
71.
Korobelnik JF, Holz FG, Roider J, et al: Intravitreal aflibercept injection for macular edema resulting from central retinal vein occlusion: one-year results of the phase 3 GALILEO study. Ophthalmology 2014;121:202- 208.
72.
Brown DM, Heier JS, Clark WL, Boyer DS, Vitti R, Berliner AJ: Intravitreal aflibercept injection for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: 1-year results from the phase 3 COPERNICUS study. Am J Ophthalmol 2013;155:429-437.
73.
Boyer DS: Efficacy and Safety of Intravitreal Aflibercept Injection (IAI) for Treatment of Macular Edema Secondary to Branch Retinal Vein Occlusion (BRVO): 24-Week Results of the VIBRANT Study (abstract 604-B0131). ARVO Annu Meet, Orlando, May 2014.
74.
Evaluation of grid pattern photocoagulation for macular edema in central vein occlusion. The Central Vein Occlusion Study Group M report. Ophthalmology 1995;102:1425-1433.
75.
Zhang X, Bao S, Lai D, Rapkins RW, Gillies MC: Intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide inhibits breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier through differential regulation of VEGF-A and its receptors in early diabetic rat retinas. Diabetes 2008;57:1026-1033.
76.
Wang K, Wang Y, Gao L, Li X, Li M, Guo J: Dexamethasone inhibits leukocyte accumulation and vascular permeability in retina of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats via reducing vascular endothelial growth factor and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 expression. Biol Pharm Bull 2008;31:1541-1546.
77.
Lee HB, Pulido JS, McCannel CA, Buettner H: Role of inflammation in retinal vein occlusion. Can J Ophthalmol 2007;42:131-133.
78.
Jeanneteau F, Garabedian MJ, Chao MV: Activation of Trk neurotrophin receptors by glucocorticoids provides a neuroprotective effect. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105:4862-4867.
79.
Ip MS, Scott IU, VanVeldhuisen PC, et al: A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with observation to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion: the Standard Care vs. Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) study report 5. Arch Ophthalmol 2009;127:1101-1114.
80.
Scott IU, Ip MS, VanVeldhuisen PC, et al: A randomized trial comparing the efficacy and safety of intravitreal triamcinolone with standard care to treat vision loss associated with macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion: the Standard Care vs. Corticosteroid for Retinal Vein Occlusion (SCORE) study report 6. Arch Ophthalmol 2009;127:1115-1128.
81.
Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network: A randomized trial comparing intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide and focal/grid photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2008;115:1447-1449.
82.
Ding X, Li J, Hu X, Yu S, Pan J, Tang S: Prospective study of intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide versus bevacizumab for macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2011;31:838-845.
83.
Lim JW, Na KI: A comparative study between intravitreal triamcinolone and bevacizumab for macular edema due to central retinal vein occlusion with poor vision. Indian J Ophthalmol 2011;59:93-96.
84.
Demir M, Dirim B, Acar Z, Sendul Y, Oba E: Comparison of the effects of intravitreal bevacizumab and triamcinolone acetonide in the treatment of macular edema secondary to central retinal vein occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol 2013;62:279-283.
85.
Tao Y, Hou J, Jiang YR, Li XX, Jonas JB: Intravitreal bevacizumab vs triamcinolone acetonide for macular oedema due to central retinal vein occlusion. Eye (Lond) 2010;24:810-815.
86.
Allergan Inc: Ozurdex® Product Monograph, 2012.
87.
Haller JA, Bandello F, Belfort R Jr, et al: Randomized, sham-controlled trial of dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with macular edema due to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2010;117:1134-1146.
88.
Capone A Jr, Singer MA, Dodwell DG, et al: Efficacy and safety of two or more dexamethasone intravitreal implant injections for treatment of macular edema related to retinal vein occlusion (Shasta Study). Retina 2014;34:342-351.
89.
Bezatis A, Spital G, Höhn F, et al: Functional and anatomical results after a single intravitreal Ozurdex injection in retinal vein occlusion: a 6-month follow-up - the SOLO study. Acta Ophthalmol 2013;91:e340-e347.
90.
Matonti F, Meyer F, Guigou S, et al: Ozurdex in the management of the macular edema following retinal vein occlusion in clinical practice. Acta Ophthalmol 2013;91:e584-e586.
91.
Boyer DS, Yoon YH, Belfort R Jr, et al: Three-year, randomized, sham-controlled trial of dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 2014;121:1904-1914.
92.
Azad R, Vivek K, Sharma Y, Chandra P, Sain S, Venkataraman A: Ranibizumab as an adjunct to laser for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Indian J Ophthalmol 2012;60:263-266.
93.
Donati S, Barosi P, Bianchi M, Al Oum M, Azzolini C: Combined intravitreal bevacizumab and grid laser photocoagulation for macular edema secondary to branch retinal vein occlusion. Eur J Ophthalmol 2012;22:607-614.
94.
Buddi R, Eliott D: Evaluation and management of retinal vein occlusion. Rev Ophthalmol, http://www.revophth.com/content/d/wills_eye_resident_case_series/d/1213/p/22849/c/25432 (accessed July 27, 2014).
95.
McAllister IL, Gillies ME, Smithies LA, et al: The Central Retinal Vein Bypass Study: a trial of laser-induced chorioretinal venous anastomosis for central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology 2010;117:954-965.
96.
Opremcak EM, Bruce RA: Surgical decompression of branch retinal vein occlusion via arteriovenous crossing sheathotomy: a prospective review of 15 cases. Retina 1999;19:1-5.
97.
Mason J 3rd, Feist R, White M Jr, Swanner J, McGwin G Jr, Emond T: Sheathotomy to decompress branch retinal vein occlusion: a matched control study. Ophthalmology 2004;111:540-545.
98.
Opremcak EM, Rehmar AJ, Ridenour CD, Kurz DE: Radial optic neurotomy for central retinal vein occlusion: 117 consecutive cases. Retina 2006;26:297-305.
99.
Liang XL, Chen HY, Huang YS, et al: Pars plana vitrectomy and internal limiting membrane peeling for macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a pilot study. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2007;36:293-297.
100.
Furino C, Ferrari TM, Boscia F, et al: Combined radial optic neurotomy, internal limiting membrane peeling, and intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide for central retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmic Surg Lasers Imaging 2005;36:422-425.
101.
Mandelcorn MS, Nrusimhadevara RK: Internal limiting membrane peeling for decompression of macular edema in retinal vein occlusion: a report of 14 cases. Retina 2004;24:348-355.
102.
Mandelcorn MS, Mandelcorn E, Guan K, et al: Surgical macular decompression for macular edema in retinal vein occlusion. Can J Ophthalmol 2007;42:116-122.
103.
Radetzky S, Walter P, Fauser S, Koizumi K, Kirchhof B, Joussen AM: Visual outcome of patients with macular edema after pars plana vitrectomy and indocyanine green-assisted peeling of the internal limiting membrane. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2004;242:273-278.
104.
Hvarfner C, Larsson J: Vitrectomy for non-ischaemic macular oedema in retinal vein occlusion. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2006;84:812-814.
105.
Pournaras CJ, Petropoulos IK, Pournaras JA, et al: The rationale of retinal endovascular fibrinolysis in the treatment of retinal vein occlusion: from experimental data to clinical application. Retina 2012;32:1566-1573.
106.
Yamamoto T, Kamei M, Sakaguchi H, et al: Comparison of surgical treatments for central retinal vein occlusion; RON vs. cannulation of tissue plasminogen activator into the retinal vein. Retina 2009;29:1167-1174.
107.
Hattenbach LO, Friedrich Arndt C, Lerche R, et al: Retinal vein occlusion and low-dose fibrinolytic therapy (R.O.L.F.): a prospective, randomized, controlled multicenter study of low-dose recombinant tissue plasminogen activator versus hemodilution in retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2009;29:932-940.
108.
Kadonosono K, Yamane S, Arakawa A, et al: Endovascular cannulation with a microneedle for central retinal vein occlusion. JAMA Ophthalmol 2013;131:783-786.
109.
Pinna A, Simula P, Zinellu A: Subcutaneous nadroparin calcium in the treatment of recent onset retinal vein occlusion: a pilot study. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2012;28:448-454.
110.
Maeno T, Tano R, Takenaka H, Mano T: Edaravone (MCI-186) is effective as a free radical scavenger following arteriovenous sheathotomy for treatment of macular oedema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol 2009;93:1479-1482.
111.
Glacet-Bernard A, Atassi M, Fardeau C, et al: Hemodilution therapy using automated erythrocytapheresis in central retinal vein occlusion: results of a multicenter randomized controlled study. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 2011;249:505-512.
112.
Noma H, Funatsu H, Mimura T, Eguchi S, Shimada K: Role of soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 in macular oedema with central retinal vein occlusion. Br J Ophthalmol 2011;95:788-792.
113.
Sun C, Li XX, He XJ, Zhang Q, Tao Y: Neuroprotective effect of minocycline in a rat model of branch retinal vein occlusion. Exp Eye Res 2013;113:105-116.
114.
Murakami T, Takagi H, Kita M, et al: Intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator to treat macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 2006;142:318-320.
115.
Sakuma T, Mizota A, Inoue J, Tanaka M: Intravitreal injection of autologous plasmin enzyme for macular edema associated with branch retinal vein occlusion. Am J Ophthalmol 2010;150:876-882.
116.
Tagami M, Kusuhara S, Imai H, Honda S, Tsukahara Y, Negi A: Impact of intravitreal injection of tissue plasminogen activator on full-field electroretinogram in patients with macular oedema secondary to retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmologica 2011;226:81-86.
117.
Murakami T, Takagi H, Ohashi H, et al: Role of posterior vitreous detachment induced by intravitreal tissue plasminogen activator in macular edema with central retinal vein occlusion. Retina 2007;27:1031-1037.
© 2015 S. Karger AG, Basel
2015
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.