Abstract
Classical schizophrenia literature reports motor symptoms as characteristic of the disorder. After the introduction of neuroleptic drugs, the existence of genuine motor disorders was challenged. Renewed interest arose as symptoms were found in never-medicated patients. Reports focused on abnormal involuntary movements, parkinsonism, neurological soft signs, catatonia, negative symptoms, or psychomotor slowing. Since these syndromes refer to different concepts, however, the definitions are not congruent and the symptoms overlap. The prevalence rates of motor symptoms in schizophrenia are surprisingly high, and recent studies indicate a possible pathobiology. In particular, the development and maturation of the human motor system appears to be closely linked to the emergence of motor symptoms observed in schizophrenia. Post-mortem and neuroimaging results demonstrated aberrant structure and function of premotor and motor cortices, basal ganglia, thalamus, and the connecting white matter tracts. Animal models have focused on aberrant neurotransmission and genetic contributions. Findings of localized abnormal oligodendrocyte function and myelination point to the special role of the white matter in schizophrenia, and recent studies specifically found an association between motor abnormalities and white matter structure in schizophrenia. This review of the literature supports the idea that motor symptoms are closely related to the neurodevelopmental disturbances of schizophrenia and a distinct syndromal dimension with its own pathophysiology.
Journal Section:
Editor's choice
References
1.
Bleuler E: Dementia praecox oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Leipzig, Deuticke, 1911.
2.
Kahlbaum K: Die Katatonie oder das Spannungsirresein. Eine klinische Form psychischer Krankheit. Berlin, Hirschwald, 1874.
3.
Kleist K: Die Katatonien. Nervenarzt 1943;16:1–10.
4.
Leonhard K: Die Aufteilung der endogenen Psychosen und ihre differenzierte Ätiologie. Stuttgart, Thieme, 1995.
5.
Kraepelin E: Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studierende und Ärzte, ed 6. Leipzig, Barth, 1899.
6.
Fink M, Shorter E, Taylor MA: Catatonia is not schizophrenia: Kraepelin’s error and the need to recognize catatonia as an independent syndrome in medical nomenclature. Schizophr Bull 2010;36:314–320.
7.
Heckers S, Tandon R, Bustillo J: Catatonia in the DSM – shall we move or not? Schizophr Bull 2010;36:205–207.
8.
Ungvari GS, Caroff SN, Gerevich J: The catatonia conundrum: evidence of psychomotor phenomena as a symptom dimension in psychotic disorders. Schizophr Bull 2010;36:231–238.
9.
Bombin I, Arango C, Buchanan RW: Significance and meaning of neurological signs in schizophrenia: two decades later. Schizophr Bull 2005;31:962–977.
10.
Pappa S, Dazzan P: Spontaneous movement disorders in antipsychotic-naive patients with first-episode psychoses: a systematic review. Psychol Med 2009;39:1065–1076.
11.
Whitty PF, Owoeye O, Waddington JL: Neurological signs and involuntary movements in schizophrenia: intrinsic to and informative on systems pathobiology. Schizophr Bull 2009;35:415–424.
12.
Morrens M, Hulstijn W, Sabbe B: Psychomotor slowing in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2007;33:1038–1053.
[PubMed]
13.
Wolff AL, O’Driscoll GA: Motor deficits and schizophrenia: the evidence from neuroleptic-naive patients and populations at risk. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1999;24:304–314.
[PubMed]
14.
Torrey EF: Studies of individuals with schizophrenia never treated with antipsychotic medications: a review. Schizophr Res 2002;58:101–115.
15.
Rogers D: The motor disorders of severe psychiatric illness: a conflict of paradigms. Br J Psychiatry 1985;147:221–232.
[PubMed]
16.
Turner T: Rich and mad in Victorian England. Psychol Med 1989;19:29–44.
17.
Kraepelin E: Psychiatrie. Ein kurzes Lehrbuch für Studierende und Ärzte, ed 4. Leipzig, Abel, 1893.
18.
Kraepelin E: Einführung in die psychiatrische Klinik. Leipzig, Barth, 1921.
19.
Jaspers K: Allgemeine Psychopathologie. Ein Leitfaden für Studierende, Ärzte und Psychologen. Berlin, Springer, 1913.
20.
Schneider K: Klinische Psychopathologie, ed 15. Stuttgart, Thieme, 2007.
21.
Strik W, Dierks T: Biologische Psychopathologie, ed 1st. Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 2011.
22.
Manschreck TC, Maher BA, Rucklos ME, Vereen DR: Disturbed voluntary motor activity in schizophrenic disorder. Psychol Med 1982;12:73–84.
23.
Ayd FJ Jr: A survey of drug-induced extrapyramidal reactions. JAMA 1961;175:1054–1060.
24.
Crane GE, Naranjo ER: Motor disorders induced by neuroleptics: a proposed new classification. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1971;24:179–184.
25.
Reiter PJ: Extrapyramidal motor-disturbances in dementia praecox. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1926;1:287–310.
26.
Mettler FA, Crandell A: Neurologic disorders in psychiatric institutions. J Nerv Ment Dis 1959;128:148–159.
27.
Chapman J: The early symptoms of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1966;112:225–251.
[PubMed]
28.
Torrey EF: Neurological abnormalities in schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 1980;15:381–388.
29.
Stevens JR: Disturbances of ocular movements and blinking in schizophrenia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978;41:1024–1030.
30.
Heinrichs DW, Buchanan RW: Significance and meaning of neurological signs in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1988;145:11–18.
[PubMed]
31.
Cunningham Owens DG, Johnstone EC: The disabilities of chronic schizophrenia – their nature and the factors contributing to their development. Br J Psychiatry 1980;136:384–395.
32.
Fenton WS, Wyatt RJ, McGlashan TH: Risk factors for spontaneous dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51:643–650.
33.
Owens DG, Johnstone EC, Frith CD: Spontaneous involuntary disorders of movement: their prevalence, severity, and distribution in chronic schizophrenics with and without treatment with neuroleptics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:452–461.
34.
Peralta V, Campos MS, De Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ: Motor behavior abnormalities in drug-naive patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Mov Disord 2010;25:1068–1076.
35.
Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: Motor features in psychotic disorders. I. Factor structure and clinical correlates. Schizophr Res 2001;47:107–116.
[PubMed]
36.
Ungvari GS, Goggins W, Leung SK, Gerevich J: Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features (‘catatonic schizophrenia’). II. Factor analysis of the catatonic syndrome. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2007;31:462–468.
37.
Janno S, Holi M, Tuisku K, Wahlbeck K: Prevalence of neuroleptic-induced movement disorders in chronic schizophrenia inpatients. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:160–163.
38.
Ismail B, Cantor-Graae E, McNeil TF: Neurodevelopmental origins of tardivelike dyskinesia in schizophrenia patients and their siblings. Schizophr Bull 2001;27:629–641.
39.
Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: Neuromotor abnormalities in neuroleptic-naive psychotic patients: antecedents, clinical correlates, and prediction of treatment response. Compr Psychiatry 2011;52:139–145.
40.
Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: Negative parkinsonian, depressive and catatonic symptoms in schizophrenia: a conflict of paradigms revisited. Schizophr Res 1999;40:245–253.
[PubMed]
41.
Fink M, Taylor MA: The catatonia syndrome: forgotten but not gone. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:1173–1177.
42.
Rosebush PI, Hildebrand AM, Furlong BG, Mazurek MF: Catatonic syndrome in a general psychiatric inpatient population: frequency, clinical presentation, and response to lorazepam. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:357–362.
[PubMed]
43.
Bush G, Fink M, Petrides G, Dowling F, Francis A: Catatonia. I. Rating scale and standardized examination. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996;93:129–136.
[PubMed]
44.
Bush G, Petrides G, Francis A: Catatonia and other motor syndromes in a chronically hospitalized psychiatric population. Schizophr Res 1997;27:83–92.
[PubMed]
45.
Marsden CD, Jenner P: The pathophysiology of extrapyramidal side-effects of neuroleptic drugs. Psychol Med 1980;10:55–72.
46.
van Harten PN, Hoek HW, Matroos GE, Koeter M, Kahn RS: The inter-relationships of tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dystonia: the Curacao Extrapyramidal Syndromes Study II. Schizophr Res 1997;26:235–242.
47.
McKenna PJ, Mortimer AM, Lund CE: The motor disorders of severe psychiatric illness: a conflict of paradigms. Br J Psychiatry 1988;152:863–864.
48.
McKenna PJ, Lund CE, Mortimer AM, Biggins CA: Motor, volitional and behavioural disorders in schizophrenia. 2. The ‘conflict of paradigms’ hypothesis. Br J Psychiatry 1991;158:328–336.
49.
Ungvari GS, Leung SK, Ng FS, Cheung HK, Leung T: Schizophrenia with prominent catatonic features (‘catatonic schizophrenia’). I. Demographic and clinical correlates in the chronic phase. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005;29:27–38.
50.
Docx L, Morrens M, Bervoets C, Hulstijn W, Fransen E, De Hert M, Baeken C, Audenaert K, Sabbe B: Parsing the components of the psychomotor syndrome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand, E-pub ahead of print.
51.
Peralta V, de Jalon EG, Campos MS, Basterra V, Sanchez-Torres A, Cuesta MJ: Risk factors, pre-morbid functioning and episode correlates of neurological soft signs in drug-naive patients with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Psychol Med 2011;41:1279–1289.
52.
King DJ, Wilson A, Cooper SJ, Waddington JL: The clinical correlates of neurological soft signs in chronic schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1991;158:770–775.
53.
Morrens M, Hulstijn W, Lewi P, Sabbe B: Bleuler revisited: Psychomotor slowing in schizophrenia as part of a catatonic symptom cluster. Psychiatry Res 2008;161:121–125.
54.
Waddington JL: Schizophrenia, affective psychoses, and other disorders treated with neuroleptic drugs: the enigma of tardive dyskinesia, its neurobiological determinants, and the conflict of paradigms. Int Rev Neurobiol 1989;31:297–353.
55.
Khot V, Wyatt RJ: Not all that moves is tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:661–666.
56.
Quinn J, Meagher D, Murphy P, Kinsella A, Mullaney J, Waddington JL: Vulnerability to involuntary movements over a lifetime trajectory of schizophrenia approaches 100%, in association with executive (frontal) dysfunction. Schizophr Res 2001;49:79–87.
57.
Peralta V, Cuesta MJ: The effect of antipsychotic medication on neuromotor abnormalities in neuroleptic-naive nonaffective psychotic patients: a naturalistic study with haloperidol, risperidone, or olanzapine. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2010;12: PCC.09m00799.
58.
Koning JP, Tenback DE, van Os J, Aleman A, Kahn RS, van Harten PN: Dyskinesia and parkinsonism in antipsychotic-naive patients with schizophrenia, first-degree relatives and healthy controls: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 2010;36:723–731.
59.
Lee J, Poon LY, Chong SA: Spontaneous dyskinesia in first-episode psychosis in a Southeast Asian population. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2008;28:536–539.
60.
Chong SA, Subramaniam M, Verma S: Spontaneous parkinsonism in antipsychotic-naive patients with first-episode psychosis. Can J Psychiatry 2005;50:429–431.
61.
Koning JP, Tenback DE, Kahn RS, Vollema MG, Cahn W, van Harten PN: Movement disorders are associated with schizotypy in unaffected siblings of patients with non-affective psychosis. Psychol Med 2011;41:2141–2147.
62.
Mittal VA, Neumann C, Saczawa M, Walker EF: Longitudinal progression of movement abnormalities in relation to psychotic symptoms in adolescents at high risk of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65:165–171.
63.
Mittal VA, Walker EF, Bearden CE, Walder D, Trottman H, Daley M, Simone A, Cannon TD: Markers of basal ganglia dysfunction and conversion to psychosis: neurocognitive deficits and dyskinesias in the prodromal period. Biol Psychiatry 2010;68:93–99.
64.
Barkus E, Stirling J, Hopkins R, Lewis S: The presence of neurological soft signs along the psychosis proneness continuum. Schizophr Bull 2006;32:573–577.
65.
Taylor MA, Fink M: Catatonia in psychiatric classification: a home of its own. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1233–1241.
[PubMed]
66.
Northoff G, Wenke J, Krill W, Pflug B: Ball experiments in 32 acute akinetic catatonic patients: deficits of internal initiation and generation of movements. Mov Disord 1995;10:589–595.
67.
Peralta V, Campos MS, de Jalon EG, Cuesta MJ: DSM-IV catatonia signs and criteria in first-episode, drug-naive, psychotic patients: psychometric validity and response to antipsychotic medication. Schizophr Res 2010;118:168–175.
68.
Kleinhaus K, Harlap S, Perrin MC, Manor O, Weiser M, Harkavy-Friedman JM, Lichtenberg P, Malaspina D: Catatonic schizophrenia: a cohort prospective study. Schizophr Bull 2012;38:331–337.
69.
Morrison JR: Changes in subtype diagnosis of schizophrenia: 1920–1966. Am J Psychiatry 1974;131:674–677.
[PubMed]
70.
Stompe T, Ortwein-Swoboda G, Ritter K, Schanda H, Friedmann A: Are we witnessing the disappearance of catatonic schizophrenia? Compr Psychiatry 2002;43:167–174.
[PubMed]
71.
van der Heijden FM, Tuinier S, Arts NJ, Hoogendoorn ML, Kahn RS, Verhoeven WM: Catatonia: disappeared or under-diagnosed? Psychopathology 2005;38:3–8.
[PubMed]
72.
Fahn S, Jankovic J: Principles and Practice of Movement Disorders, ed 1. Philadelphia, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2007.
73.
Caligiuri MP, Lohr JB: Instrumental motor predictors of neuroleptic-induced parkinsonism in newly medicated schizophrenia patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997;9:562–567.
74.
Caligiuri MP, Lohr JB, Jeste DV: Parkinsonism in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1343–1348.
[PubMed]
75.
Honer WG, Kopala LC, Rabinowitz J: Extrapyramidal symptoms and signs in first-episode, antipsychotic exposed and non-exposed patients with schizophrenia or related psychotic illness. J Psychopharmacol 2005;19:277–285.
76.
McCreadie RG, Srinivasan TN, Padmavati R, Thara R: Extrapyramidal symptoms in unmedicated schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2005;39:261–266.
[PubMed]
77.
Leucht S, Corves C, Arbter D, Engel RR, Li C, Davis JM: Second-generation versus first-generation antipsychotic drugs for schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2009;373:31–41.
[PubMed]
78.
Tandon R, Nasrallah HA, Keshavan MS: Schizophrenia, ‘just the facts’ 4. Clinical features and conceptualization. Schizophr Res 2009;110:1–23.
[PubMed]
79.
Buchanan RW: Persistent negative symptoms in schizophrenia: an overview. Schizophr Bull 2007;33:1013–1022.
[PubMed]
80.
Liddle PF: The symptoms of chronic schizophrenia. A re-examination of the positive-negative dichotomy. Br J Psychiatry 1987;151:145–151.
[PubMed]
81.
Farrow TF, Hunter MD, Wilkinson ID, Green RD, Spence SA: Structural brain correlates of unconstrained motor activity in people with schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2005;187:481–482.
[PubMed]
82.
Walther S, Koschorke P, Horn H, Strik W: Objectively measured motor activity in schizophrenia challenges the validity of expert ratings. Psychiatry Res 2009;169:187–190.
83.
Wichniak A, Skowerska A, Chojnacka-Wojtowicz J, Taflinski T, Wierzbicka A, Jernajczyk W, Jarema M: Actigraphic monitoring of activity and rest in schizophrenic patients treated with olanzapine or risperidone. J Psychiatr Res 2011;45:1381–1386.
[PubMed]
84.
Morrens M, Hulstijn W, Matton C, Madani Y, van Bouwel L, Peuskens J, Sabbe BG: Delineating psychomotor slowing from reduced processing speed in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2008;13:457–471.
85.
Morrens M, Hulstijn W, Van Hecke J, Peuskens J, Sabbe BG: Sensorimotor and cognitive slowing in schizophrenia as measured by the symbol digit substitution test. J Psychiatr Res 2006;40:200–206.
86.
Brown S, Birtwistle J, Roe L, Thompson C: The unhealthy lifestyle of people with schizophrenia. Psychol Med 1999;29:697–701.
[PubMed]
87.
McLeod HJ, Jaques S, Deane FP: Base rates of physical activity in Australians with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Rehabil J 2009;32:269–275.
88.
Putzhammer A, Heindl B, Broll K, Pfeiff L, Perfahl M, Hajak G: Spatial and temporal parameters of gait disturbances in schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 2004;69:159–166.
[PubMed]
89.
Putzhammer A, Perfahl M, Pfeiff L, Hajak G: Correlation of subjective well-being in schizophrenic patients with gait parameters, expert-rated motor disturbances, and psychopathological status. Pharmacopsychiatry 2005;38:132–138.
90.
Berle JO, Hauge ER, Oedegaard KJ, Holsten F, Fasmer OB: Actigraphic registration of motor activity reveals a more structured behavioural pattern in schizophrenia than in major depression. BMC Res Notes 2010;3:149.
91.
Walther S, Federspiel A, Horn H, Razavi N, Wiest R, Dierks T, Strik W, Muller TJ: Resting state cerebral blood flow and objective motor activity reveal basal ganglia dysfunction in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2011;192:117–124.
92.
Walther S, Federspiel A, Horn H, Razavi N, Wiest R, Dierks T, Strik W, Muller TJ: Alterations of white matter integrity related to motor activity in schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 2011;42:276–283.
93.
Walther S, Horn H, Razavi N, Koschorke P, Wopfner A, Muller TJ, Strik W: Higher motor activity in schizophrenia patients treated with olanzapine versus risperidone. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2010;30:181–184.
94.
Browne S, Clarke M, Gervin M, Lane A, Waddington JL, Larkin C, O’Callaghan E: Determinants of neurological dysfunction in first episode schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2000;30:1433–1441.
95.
Dazzan P, Lloyd T, Morgan KD, Zanelli J, Morgan C, Orr K, Hutchinson G, Fearon P, Allin M, Rifkin L, McGuire PK, Doody GA, Holloway J, Leff J, Harrison G, Jones PB, Murray RM: Neurological abnormalities and cognitive ability in first-episode psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 2008;193:197–202.
96.
Zabala A, Robles O, Parellada M, Moreno DM, Ruiz-Sancho A, Burdalo M, Medina O, Arango C: Neurological soft signs in adolescents with first episode psychosis. Eur Psychiatry 2006;21:283–287.
97.
Gupta S, Andreasen NC, Arndt S, Flaum M, Schultz SK, Hubbard WC, Smith M: Neurological soft signs in neuroleptic-naive and neuroleptic-treated schizophrenic patients and in normal comparison subjects. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:191–196.
98.
Ismail B, Cantor-Graae E, McNeil TF: Neurological abnormalities in schizophrenic patients and their siblings. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:84–89.
[PubMed]
99.
Cortese L, Caligiuri MP, Malla AK, Manchanda R, Takhar J, Haricharan R: Relationship of neuromotor disturbances to psychosis symptoms in first-episode neuroleptic-naive schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Res 2005;75:65–75.
[PubMed]
100.
Tsai HT, Caroff SN, Miller del D, McEvoy J, Lieberman JA, North KE, Stroup TS, Sullivan PF: A candidate gene study of tardive dyskinesia in the CATIE schizophrenia trial. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2010;153B:336–340.
101.
Chakos MH, Mayerhoff DI, Loebel AD, Alvir JM, Lieberman JA: Incidence and correlates of acute extrapyramidal symptoms in first episode of schizophrenia. Psychopharmacol Bull 1992;28:81–86.
102.
Bakker PR, de Groot IW, van Os J, van Harten PN: Long-stay psychiatric patients: a prospective study revealing persistent antipsychotic-induced movement disorder. PLoS One 2011;6:e25588.
103.
Tenback DE, van Harten PN, Slooff CJ, van Os J: Incidence and persistence of tardive dyskinesia and extrapyramidal symptoms in schizophrenia. J Psychopharmacol 2010;24:1031–1035.
104.
Chen EY, Kwok CL, Au JW, Chen RY, Lau BS: Progressive deterioration of soft neurological signs in chronic schizophrenic patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2000;102:342–349.
105.
Schroder J, Niethammer R, Geider FJ, Reitz C, Binkert M, Jauss M, Sauer H: Neurological soft signs in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 1991;6:25–30.
[PubMed]
106.
Bachmann S, Bottmer C, Schroder J: Neurological soft signs in first-episode schizophrenia: a follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:2337–2343.
[PubMed]
107.
Whitty P, Clarke M, Browne S, McTigue O, Kamali M, Feeney L, Lane A, Kinsella A, Waddington JL, Larkin C, O’Callaghan E: Prospective evaluation of neurological soft signs in first-episode schizophrenia in relation to psychopathology: state versus trait phenomena. Psychol Med 2003;33:1479–1484.
[PubMed]
108.
Kraepelin E: Über Remissionen bei Katatonie. Allg Z Psychiatr 1896;52:1126–1127.
109.
Ungvari GS, Chiu HF, Chow LY, Lau BS, Tang WK: Lorazepam for chronic catatonia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;142:393–398.
110.
Abrams R, Taylor MA: Catatonia. A prospective clinical study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976;33:579–581.
[PubMed]
111.
Carroll BT: Kahlbaum’s catatonia revisited. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001;55:431–436.
112.
Bush G, Fink M, Petrides G, Dowling F, Francis A: Catatonia. II. Treatment with lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1996;93:137–143.
[PubMed]
113.
Gombart L, Soares J, Alexander GE: Functional anatomy of basal ganglia and motor systems; in Watts RL, Koller WC (eds): Movement Disorders: Neurologic Principles and Practice. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2004, pp 87–100.
114.
Haggard P: Human volition: towards a neuroscience of will. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9:934–946.
115.
Graybiel AM: The basal ganglia. Curr Biol 2000;10:R509–R511.
[PubMed]
116.
DeLong MR, Wichmann T: Circuits and circuit disorders of the basal ganglia. Arch Neurol 2007;64:20–24.
[PubMed]
117.
Hamani C, Saint-Cyr JA, Fraser J, Kaplitt M, Lozano AM: The subthalamic nucleus in the context of movement disorders. Brain 2004;127:4–20.
[PubMed]
118.
Rommelfanger KS, Wichmann T: Extrastriatal dopaminergic circuits of the basal ganglia. Front Neuroanat 2010;4:139.
119.
Dorph-Petersen KA, Lewis DA: Stereological approaches to identifying neuropathology in psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 2011;69:113–126.
120.
Harrison PJ: The neuropathology of schizophrenia. A critical review of the data and their interpretation. Brain 1999;122:593–624.
[PubMed]
121.
Fornito A, Yucel M, Dean B, Wood SJ, Pantelis C: Anatomical abnormalities of the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia: bridging the gap between neuroimaging and neuropathology. Schizophr Bull 2009;35:973–993.
122.
Kreczmanski P, Heinsen H, Mantua V, Woltersdorf F, Masson T, Ulfig N, Schmidt-Kastner R, Korr H, Steinbusch HW, Hof PR, Schmitz C: Volume, neuron density and total neuron number in five subcortical regions in schizophrenia. Brain 2007;130:678–692.
123.
Byne W, Hazlett EA, Buchsbaum MS, Kemether E: The thalamus and schizophrenia: current status of research. Acta Neuropathol 2009;117:347–368.
124.
Navari S, Dazzan P: Do antipsychotic drugs affect brain structure? A systematic and critical review of MRI findings. Psychol Med 2009;39:1763–1777.
125.
Graybiel AM: The basal ganglia and cognitive pattern generators. Schizophr Bull 1997;23:459–469.
[PubMed]
126.
Hashimoto T, Bazmi HH, Mirnics K, Wu Q, Sampson AR, Lewis DA: Conserved regional patterns of GABA-related transcript expression in the neocortex of subjects with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2008;165:479–489.
[PubMed]
127.
Thompson M, Weickert CS, Wyatt E, Webster MJ: Decreased glutamic acid decarboxylase(67) mRNA expression in multiple brain areas of patients with schizophrenia and mood disorders. J Psychiatr Res 2009;43:970–977.
128.
Northoff G: Catatonia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome: psychopathology and pathophysiology. J Neural Transm 2002;109:1453–1467.
[PubMed]
129.
Northoff G, Steinke R, Czcervenka C, Krause R, Ulrich S, Danos P, Kropf D, Otto H, Bogerts B: Decreased density of GABA-A receptors in the left sensorimotor cortex in akinetic catatonia: investigation of in vivo benzodiazepine receptor binding. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999;67:445–450.
[PubMed]
130.
Ungvari GS, Leung CM, Wong MK, Lau J: Benzodiazepines in the treatment of catatonic syndrome. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;89:285–288.
[PubMed]
131.
Olney JW, Newcomer JW, Farber NB: NMDA receptor hypofunction model of schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 1999;33:523–533.
[PubMed]
132.
Marsman A, van den Heuvel MP, Klomp DW, Kahn RS, Luijten PR, Hulshoff Pol HE: Glutamate in schizophrenia: a focused review and meta-analysis of 1H-MRS studies. Schizophr Bull, E-pub ahead of print.
133.
McCullumsmith RE, Meador-Woodruff JH: Striatal excitatory amino acid transporter transcript expression in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002;26:368–375.
134.
Kristiansen LV, Meador-Woodruff JH: Abnormal striatal expression of transcripts encoding NMDA interacting PSD proteins in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and major depression. Schizophr Res 2005;78:87–93.
135.
Tsai G, Goff DC, Chang RW, Flood J, Baer L, Coyle JT: Markers of glutamatergic neurotransmission and oxidative stress associated with tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:1207–1213.
[PubMed]
136.
Northoff G, Eckert J, Fritze J: Glutamatergic dysfunction in catatonia? Successful treatment of three acute akinetic catatonic patients with the NMDA antagonist amantadine. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997;62:404–406.
[PubMed]
137.
Mamah D, Wang L, Barch D, de Erausquin GA, Gado M, Csernansky JG: Structural analysis of the basal ganglia in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2007;89:59–71.
138.
Ballmaier M, Schlagenhauf F, Toga AW, Gallinat J, Koslowski M, Zoli M, Hojatkashani C, Narr KL, Heinz A: Regional patterns and clinical correlates of basal ganglia morphology in non-medicated schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2008;106:140–147.
139.
Gilbert AR, Rosenberg DR, Harenski K, Spencer S, Sweeney JA, Keshavan MS: Thalamic volumes in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:618–624.
140.
Coscia DM, Narr KL, Robinson DG, Hamilton LS, Sevy S, Burdick KE, Gunduz-Bruce H, McCormack J, Bilder RM, Szeszko PR: Volumetric and shape analysis of the thalamus in first-episode schizophrenia. Hum Brain Mapp 2009;30:1236–1245.
141.
Lang DJ, Khorram B, Goghari VM, Kopala LC, Vandorpe RA, Rui Q, Smith GN, Honer WG: Reduced anterior internal capsule and thalamic volumes in first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 2006;87:89–99.
142.
Bora E, Fornito A, Radua J, Walterfang M, Seal M, Wood SJ, Yucel M, Velakoulis D, Pantelis C: Neuroanatomical abnormalities in schizophrenia: a multimodal voxelwise meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis. Schizophr Res 2011;127:46–57.
143.
Ellison-Wright I, Glahn DC, Laird AR, Thelen SM, Bullmore E: The anatomy of first-episode and chronic schizophrenia: an anatomical likelihood estimation meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 2008;165:1015–1023.
144.
Buchsbaum MS, Hazlett EA: Positron emission tomography studies of abnormal glucose metabolism in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1998;24:343–364.
[PubMed]
145.
Gold JM, Egan MF, Kirch DG, Goldberg TE, Daniel DG, Bigelow LB, Wyatt RJ: Tardive dyskinesia: neuropsychological, computerized tomographic, and psychiatric symptom findings. Biol Psychiatry 1991;30:587–599.
146.
Mion CC, Andreasen NC, Arndt S, Swayze VW 2nd, Cohen GA: MRI abnormalities in tardive dyskinesia. Psychiatry Res 1991;40:157–166.
147.
McCreadie RG, Thara R, Padmavati R, Srinivasan TN, Jaipurkar SD: Structural brain differences between never-treated patients with schizophrenia, with and without dyskinesia, and normal control subjects: a magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002;59:332–336.
148.
Waddington JL, O’Callaghan E, Buckley P, Madigan C, Redmond O, Stack JP, Kinsella A, Larkin C, Ennis JT: Tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia. Relationship to minor physical anomalies, frontal lobe dysfunction and cerebral structure on magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Psychiatry 1995;167:41–44.
149.
Pahl JJ, Mazziotta JC, Bartzokis G, Cummings J, Altschuler L, Mintz J, Marder SR, Phelps ME: Positron-emission tomography in tardive dyskinesia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995;7:457–465.
150.
Thomann PA, Wustenberg T, Santos VD, Bachmann S, Essig M, Schroder J: Neurological soft signs and brain morphology in first-episode schizophrenia. Psychol Med 2009;39:371–379.
[PubMed]
151.
Venkatasubramanian G, Jayakumar PN, Gangadhar BN, Keshavan MS: Neuroanatomical correlates of neurological soft signs in antipsychotic-naive schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2008;164:215–222.
[PubMed]
152.
Dazzan P, Morgan KD, Orr KG, Hutchinson G, Chitnis X, Suckling J, Fearon P, Salvo J, McGuire PK, Mallett RM, Jones PB, Leff J, Murray RM: The structural brain correlates of neurological soft signs in AESOP first-episode psychoses study. Brain 2004;127:143–153.
[PubMed]
153.
Keshavan MS, Sanders RD, Sweeney JA, Diwadkar VA, Goldstein G, Pettegrew JW, Schooler NR: Diagnostic specificity and neuroanatomical validity of neurological abnormalities in first-episode psychoses. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1298–1304.
154.
Mouchet-Mages S, Rodrigo S, Cachia A, Mouaffak F, Olie JP, Meder JF, Oppenheim C, Krebs MO: Correlations of cerebello-thalamo-prefrontal structure and neurological soft signs in patients with first-episode psychosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2011;123:451–458.
[PubMed]
155.
Hirjak D, Wolf RC, Stieltjes B, Seidl U, Schroder J, Thomann PA: Neurological soft signs and subcortical brain morphology in recent onset schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2012;46:533–539.
[PubMed]
156.
Galynker II, Weiss J, Ongseng F, Finestone H: ECT treatment and cerebral perfusion in catatonia. J Nucl Med 1997;38:251–254.
157.
Lauer M, Schirrmeister H, Gerhard A, Ellitok E, Beckmann H, Reske SN, Stober G: Disturbed neural circuits in a subtype of chronic catatonic schizophrenia demonstrated by F-18-FDG-PET and F-18-DOPA-PET. J Neural Transm 2001;108:661–670.
158.
Northoff G, Steinke R, Nagel DC, Grosser O, Danos P, Genz A, Krause R, Boker H, Otto HJ, Bogerts B: Right lower prefronto-parietal cortical dysfunction in akinetic catatonia: a combined study of neuropsychology and regional cerebral blood flow. Psychol Med 2000;30:583–596.
[PubMed]
159.
Northoff G, Braus DF, Sartorius A, Khoram-Sefat D, Russ M, Eckert J, Herrig M, Leschinger A, Bogerts B, Henn FA: Reduced activation and altered laterality in two neuroleptic-naive catatonic patients during a motor task in functional MRI. Psychol Med 1999;29:997–1002.
[PubMed]
160.
Payoux P, Boulanouar K, Sarramon C, Fabre N, Descombes S, Galitsky M, Thalamas C, Brefel-Courbon C, Sabatini U, Manelfe C, Chollet F, Schmitt L, Rascol O: Cortical motor activation in akinetic schizophrenic patients: a pilot functional MRI study. Mov Disord 2004;19:83–90.
161.
Scheuerecker J, Ongseng F, Finestone H, Seifert D, Koutsouleris N, Moller HJ, Meisenzahl EM: Cerebral network deficits in post-acute catatonic schizophrenic patients measured by fMRI. J Psychiatr Res 2009;43:607–614.
[PubMed]
162.
Tauscher J, Kufferle B, Asenbaum S, Fischer P, Pezawas L, Barnas C, Tauscher-Wisniewski S, Brucke T, Kasper S: In vivo 123I IBZM SPECT imaging of striatal dopamine-2 receptor occupancy in schizophrenic patients treated with olanzapine in comparison to clozapine and haloperidol. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;141:175–181.
163.
Heinz A, Knable MB, Coppola R, Gorey JG, Jones DW, Lee KS, Weinberger DR: Psychomotor slowing, negative symptoms and dopamine receptor availability – an IBZM SPECT study in neuroleptic-treated and drug-free schizophrenic patients. Schizophr Res 1998;31:19–26.
164.
Galderisi S, Quarantelli M, Volpe U, Mucci A, Cassano GB, Invernizzi G, Rossi A, Vita A, Pini S, Cassano P, Daneluzzo E, De Peri L, Stratta P, Brunetti A, Maj M: Patterns of structural MRI abnormalities in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:393–401.
165.
Cascella NG, Fieldstone SC, Rao VA, Pearlson GD, Sawa A, Schretlen DJ: Gray-matter abnormalities in deficit schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2010;120:63–70.
166.
Nenadic I, Sauer H, Gaser C: Distinct pattern of brain structural deficits in subsyndromes of schizophrenia delineated by psychopathology. Neuroimage 2010;49:1153–1160.
167.
Liddle PF, Friston KJ, Frith CD, Hirsch SR, Jones T, Frackowiak RS: Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1992;160:179–186.
[PubMed]
168.
Exner C, Weniger G, Schmidt-Samoa C, Irle E: Reduced size of the pre-supplementary motor cortex and impaired motor sequence learning in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2006;84:386–396.
[PubMed]
169.
Kodama S, Fukuzako H, Fukuzako T, Kiura T, Nozoe S, Hashiguchi T, Yamada K, Takenouchi K, Takigawa M, Nakabeppu Y, Nakajo M: Aberrant brain activation following motor skill learning in schizophrenic patients as shown by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Psychol Med 2001;31:1079–1088.
170.
Rowland LM, Shadmehr R, Kravitz D, Holcomb HH: Sequential neural changes during motor learning in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2008;163:1–12.
171.
Schroder J, Wenz F, Schad LR, Baudendistel K, Knopp MV: Sensorimotor cortex and supplementary motor area changes in schizophrenia. A study with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Psychiatry 1995;167:197–201.
[PubMed]
172.
O’Tuathaigh CM, Waddington JL: Mutant mouse models: phenotypic relationships to domains of psychopathology and pathobiology in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2010;36:243–245.
173.
van den Buuse M: Modeling the positive symptoms of schizophrenia in genetically modified mice: pharmacology and methodology aspects. Schizophr Bull 2010;36:246–270.
174.
Karl T, Duffy L, O’Brien E, Matsumoto I, Dedova I: Behavioural effects of chronic haloperidol and risperidone treatment in rats. Behav Brain Res 2006;171:286–294.
175.
Waddington JL, Cross AJ, Gamble SJ, Bourne RC: Spontaneous orofacial dyskinesia and dopaminergic function in rats after 6 months of neuroleptic treatment. Science 1983;220:530–532.
176.
Gunne LM, Haggstrom JE, Sjoquist B: Association with persistent neuroleptic-induced dyskinesia of regional changes in brain GABA synthesis. Nature 1984;309:347–349.
[PubMed]
177.
Moore H, Jentsch JD, Ghajarnia M, Geyer MA, Grace AA: A neurobehavioral systems analysis of adult rats exposed to methylazoxymethanol acetate on e17: implications for the neuropathology of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2006;60:253–264.
[PubMed]
178.
Radyushkin K, El-Kordi A, Boretius S, Castaneda S, Ronnenberg A, Reim K, Bickeboller H, Frahm J, Brose N, Ehrenreich H: Complexin2 null mutation requires a ‘second hit’ for induction of phenotypic changes relevant to schizophrenia. Genes Brain Behav 2010;9:592–602.
179.
Pioli EY, Meissner W, Sohr R, Gross CE, Bezard E, Bioulac BH: Differential behavioral effects of partial bilateral lesions of ventral tegmental area or substantia nigra pars compacta in rats. Neuroscience 2008;153:1213–1224.
180.
Wadenberg ML, Soliman A, VanderSpek SC, Kapur S: Dopamine D(2) receptor occupancy is a common mechanism underlying animal models of antipsychotics and their clinical effects. Neuropsychopharmacology 2001;25:633–641.
181.
Hauber W: Blockade of subthalamic dopamine D1 receptors elicits akinesia in rats. Neuroreport 1998;9:4115–4118.
182.
Kornhuber J, Fischer EG: Glutamic acid diethyl ester induces catalepsy in rats. A new model for schizophrenia? Neurosci Lett 1982;34:325–329.
183.
Shiigi Y, Casey DE: Behavioral effects of ketamine, an NMDA glutamatergic antagonist, in non-human primates. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1999;146:67–72.
184.
Noda Y, Kamei H, Mamiya T, Furukawa H, Nabeshima T: Repeated phencyclidine treatment induces negative symptom-like behavior in forced swimming test in mice: imbalance of prefrontal serotonergic and dopaminergic functions. Neuropsychopharmacology 2000;23:375–387.
185.
Noda Y, Yamada K, Furukawa H, Nabeshima T: Enhancement of immobility in a forced swimming test by subacute or repeated treatment with phencyclidine: a new model of schizophrenia. Br J Pharmacol 1995;116:2531–2537.
186.
Li Z, Boules M, Williams K, Gordillo A, Li S, Richelson E: Similarities in the behavior and molecular deficits in the frontal cortex between the neurotensin receptor subtype 1 knockout mice and chronic phencyclidine-treated mice: relevance to schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 2010;40:467–477.
187.
O’Tuathaigh CM, Kirby BP, Moran PM, Waddington JL: Mutant mouse models: genotype-phenotype relationships to negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2010;36:271–288.
188.
Schiffelholz T, Hinze-Selch D, Aldenhoff JB: Perinatal MK-801 treatment affects age-related changes in locomotor activity from childhood to later adulthood in rats. Neurosci Lett 2004;360:157–160.
189.
Fendt M, Lex A, Falkai P, Henn FA, Schmitt A: Behavioural alterations in rats following neonatal hypoxia and effects of clozapine: implications for schizophrenia. Pharmacopsychiatry 2008;41:138–145.
190.
Mooslehner KA, Chan PM, Xu W, Liu L, Smadja C, Humby T, Allen ND, Wilkinson LS, Emson PC: Mice with very low expression of the vesicular monoamine transporter 2 gene survive into adulthood: potential mouse model for parkinsonism. Mol Cell Biol 2001;21:5321–5331.
191.
Zhang M, Ballard ME, Basso AM, Bratcher N, Browman KE, Curzon P, Konno R, Meyer AH, Rueter LE: Behavioral characterization of a mutant mouse strain lacking D-amino acid oxidase activity. Behav Brain Res 2011;217:81–87.
192.
Ortega-Alvaro A, Aracil-Fernandez A, Garcia-Gutierrez MS, Navarrete F, Manzanares J: Deletion of CB2 cannabinoid receptor induces schizophrenia-related behaviors in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:1489–1504.
193.
Hattori S, Murotani T, Matsuzaki S, Ishizuka T, Kumamoto N, Takeda M, Tohyama M, Yamatodani A, Kunugi H, Hashimoto R: Behavioral abnormalities and dopamine reductions in sdy mutant mice with a deletion in Dtnbp1, a susceptibility gene for schizophrenia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008;373:298–302.
194.
Roy K, Murtie JC, El-Khodor BF, Edgar N, Sardi SP, Hooks BM, Benoit-Marand M, Chen C, Moore H, O’Donnell P, Brunner D, Corfas G: Loss of ERBB signaling in oligodendrocytes alters myelin and dopaminergic function, a potential mechanism for neuropsychiatric disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104:8131–8136.
[PubMed]
195.
Morello N, Bianchi FT, Marmiroli P, Tonoli E, Rodriguez Menendez V, Silengo L, Cavaletti G, Vercelli A, Altruda F, Tolosano E: A role for hemopexin in oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelin formation. PLoS One 2011;6:e20173.
196.
Andreasen NC, Paradiso S, O’Leary DS: ‘Cognitive dysmetria’ as an integrative theory of schizophrenia: a dysfunction in cortical-subcortical-cerebellar circuitry? Schizophr Bull 1998;24:203–218.
[PubMed]
197.
Friston KJ: Schizophrenia and the disconnection hypothesis. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1999;395:68–79.
198.
Haroutunian V, Davis KL: Introduction to the special section: myelin and oligodendrocyte abnormalities in schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2007;10:499–502.
199.
Yang Y, Fung SJ, Rothwell A, Tianmei S, Weickert CS: Increased interstitial white matter neuron density in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of people with schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2011;69:63–70.
200.
Harrison PJ, Weinberger DR: Schizophrenia genes, gene expression, and neuropathology: on the matter of their convergence. Mol Psychiatry 2005;10:40–68, image 45.
[PubMed]
201.
Connor CM, Guo Y, Akbarian S: Cingulate white matter neurons in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2009;66:486–493.
202.
Mei L, Xiong WC: Neuregulin 1 in neural development, synaptic plasticity and schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci 2008;9:437–452.
[PubMed]
203.
Hahn CG, Wang HY, Cho DS, Talbot K, Gur RE, Berrettini WH, Bakshi K, Kamins J, Borgmann-Winter KE, Siegel SJ, Gallop RJ, Arnold SE: Altered neuregulin 1-ERBB4 signaling contributes to NMDA receptor hypofunction in schizophrenia. Nat Med 2006;12:824–828.
[PubMed]
204.
Barakat A, Dean B, Scarr E, Evin G: Decreased neuregulin 1 C-terminal fragment in Brodmann’s area 6 of patients with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2010;124:200–207.
205.
Lopez-Bendito G, Cautinat A, Sanchez JA, Bielle F, Flames N, Garratt AN, Talmage DA, Role LW, Charnay P, Marin O, Garel S: Tangential neuronal migration controls axon guidance: a role for neuregulin-1 in thalamocortical axon navigation. Cell 2006;125:127–142.
206.
Bai YM, Chou KH, Lin CP, Chen IY, Li CT, Yang KC, Chou YH, Su TP: White matter abnormalities in schizophrenia patients with tardive dyskinesia: a diffusion tensor image study. Schizophr Res 2009;109:167–181.
207.
Douaud G, Mackay C, Andersson J, James S, Quested D, Ray MK, Connell J, Roberts N, Crow TJ, Matthews PM, Smith S, James A: Schizophrenia delays and alters maturation of the brain in adolescence. Brain 2009;132:2437–2448.
208.
Federspiel A, Begre S, Kiefer C, Schroth G, Strik WK, Dierks T: Alterations of white matter connectivity in first episode schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis 2006;22:702–709.
[PubMed]
209.
Kyriakopoulos M, Bargiotas T, Barker GJ, Frangou S: Diffusion tensor imaging in schizophrenia. Eur Psychiatry 2008;23:255–273.
210.
Schneiderman JS, Hazlett EA, Chu KW, Zhang J, Goodman CR, Newmark RE, Torosjan Y, Canfield EL, Entis J, Mitropoulou V, Tang CY, Friedman J, Buchsbaum MS: Brodmann area analysis of white matter anisotropy and age in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2011;130:57–67.
211.
Gogtay N, Lu A, Leow AD, Klunder AD, Lee AD, Chavez A, Greenstein D, Giedd JN, Toga AW, Rapoport JL, Thompson PM: Three-dimensional brain growth abnormalities in childhood-onset schizophrenia visualized by using tensor-based morphometry. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008;105:15979–15984.
212.
Perez-Iglesias R, Tordesillas-Gutierrez D, McGuire PK, Barker GJ, Roiz-Santianez R, Mata I, de Lucas EM, Rodriguez-Sanchez JM, Ayesa-Arriola R, Vazquez-Barquero JL, Crespo-Facorro B: White matter integrity and cognitive impairment in first-episode psychosis. Am J Psychiatry 2010;167:451–458.
213.
Bracht T, Schnell S, Federspiel A, Jann K, Razavi N, Horn H, Wiest R, Dierks T, Müller TJ, Strik W, Walther S: Altered motor pathway integrity in schizophrenia: World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry. Prague, WFSBP, 2011, pp P18–P25.
214.
Knickmeyer RC, Gouttard S, Kang C, Evans D, Wilber K, Smith JK, Hamer RM, Lin W, Gerig G, Gilmore JH: A structural MRI study of human brain development from birth to 2 years. J Neurosci 2008;28:12176–12182.
215.
Giedd JN, Rapoport JL: Structural MRI of pediatric brain development: what have we learned and where are we going? Neuron 2010;67:728–734.
216.
Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, Hayashi KM, Greenstein D, Vaituzis AC, Nugent TF 3rd, Herman DH, Clasen LS, Toga AW, Rapoport JL, Thompson PM: Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:8174–8179.
[PubMed]
217.
Zielinski BA, Gennatas ED, Zhou J, Seeley WW: Network-level structural covariance in the developing brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107:18191–18196.
218.
Paus T, Zijdenbos A, Worsley K, Collins DL, Blumenthal J, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL, Evans AC: Structural maturation of neural pathways in children and adolescents: in vivo study. Science 1999;283:1908–1911.
[PubMed]
219.
Barnea-Goraly N, Menon V, Eckert M, Tamm L, Bammer R, Karchemskiy A, Dant CC, Reiss AL: White matter development during childhood and adolescence: a cross-sectional diffusion tensor imaging study. Cereb Cortex 2005;15:1848–1854.
[PubMed]
220.
Waddington JL, Buckley PF, Scully PJ, Lane A, O’Callaghan E, Larkin C: Course of psychopathology, cognition and neurobiological abnormality in schizophrenia: developmental origins and amelioration by antipsychotics? J Psychiatr Res 1998;32:179–189.
221.
Weinberger DR: From neuropathology to neurodevelopment. Lancet 1995;346:552–557.
[PubMed]
222.
Peralta V, Cuesta MJ, Serrano JF: Obstetric complications and neurological abnormalities in neuroleptic-naive psychotic patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2006;256:407–413.
223.
Brown AS, Vinogradov S, Kremen WS, Poole JH, Bao Y, Kern D, McKeague IW: Association of maternal genital and reproductive infections with verbal memory and motor deficits in adult schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2011;188:179–186.
224.
Jones P, Rodgers B, Murray R, Marmot M: Child development risk factors for adult schizophrenia in the British 1946 birth cohort. Lancet 1994;344:1398–1402.
[PubMed]
225.
Isohanni M, Jones PB, Moilanen K, Rantakallio P, Veijola J, Oja H, Koiranen M, Jokelainen J, Croudace T, Jarvelin M: Early developmental milestones in adult schizophrenia and other psychoses. A 31-year follow-up of the Northern Finland 1966 Birth Cohort. Schizophr Res 2001;52:1–19.
226.
Cannon M, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Harrington H, Taylor A, Murray RM, Poulton R: Evidence for early-childhood, pan-developmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder: results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2002;59:449–456.
[PubMed]
227.
Rosso IM, Bearden CE, Hollister JM, Gasperoni TL, Sanchez LE, Hadley T, Cannon TD: Childhood neuromotor dysfunction in schizophrenia patients and their unaffected siblings: a prospective cohort study. Schizophr Bull 2000;26:367–378.
[PubMed]
228.
Clarke MC, Tanskanen A, Huttunen M, Leon DA, Murray RM, Jones PB, Cannon M: Increased risk of schizophrenia from additive interaction between infant motor developmental delay and obstetric complications: evidence from a population-based longitudinal study. Am J Psychiatry 2011;168:1295–1302.
229.
Schiffman J, Sorensen HJ, Maeda J, Mortensen EL, Victoroff J, Hayashi K, Michelsen NM, Ekstrom M, Mednick S: Childhood motor coordination and adult schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:1041–1047.
230.
Walker EF, Savoie T, Davis D: Neuromotor precursors of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1994;20:441–451.
231.
Mittal VA, Tessner KD, Trottman HD, Esterberg M, Dhrub SH, Simeonova DI, McMillan AL, Murphy E, Saczawa ME, Walker EF: Movement abnormalities and the progression of prodromal symptomatology in adolescents at risk for psychotic disorders. J Abnorm Psychol 2007;116:260–267.
232.
Torrey EF, Taylor EH, Bracha HS, Bowler AE, McNeil TF, Rawlings RR, Quinn PO, Bigelow LB, Rickler K, Sjostrom K, et al: Prenatal origin of schizophrenia in a subgroup of discordant monozygotic twins. Schizophr Bull 1994;20:423–432.
233.
Penzes P, Cahill ME, Jones KA, VanLeeuwen JE, Woolfrey KM: Dendritic spine pathology in neuropsychiatric disorders. Nat Neurosci 2011;14:285–293.
234.
Ridler K, Veijola JM, Tanskanen P, Miettunen J, Chitnis X, Suckling J, Murray GK, Haapea M, Jones PB, Isohanni MK, Bullmore ET: Fronto-cerebellar systems are associated with infant motor and adult executive functions in healthy adults but not in schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:15651–15656.
[PubMed]
235.
Neelam K, Garg D, Marshall M: A systematic review and meta-analysis of neurological soft signs in relatives of people with schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 2011;11:139.
[PubMed]
236.
Mittal VA, Walker EF: Movement abnormalities predict conversion to axis I psychosis among prodromal adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol 2007;116:796–803.
237.
Hutton S, Kennard C: Oculomotor abnormalities in schizophrenia: a critical review. Neurology 1998;50:604–609.
238.
Strik WK, Dierks T, Boning J, Osterheider M, Caspari A, Korber J: Disorders of smooth pursuit eye movement and auditory N100 in schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res 1992;41:227–235.
239.
Park S, Matthews N, Gibson C: Imitation, simulation, and schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:698–707.
240.
Aubin G, Stip E, Gelinas I, Rainville C, Chapparo C: Daily activities, cognition and community functioning in persons with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2009;107:313–318.
241.
Cannizzaro MS, Cohen H, Rappard F, Snyder PJ: Bradyphrenia and bradykinesia both contribute to altered speech in schizophrenia: a quantitative acoustic study. Cogn Behav Neurol 2005;18:206–210.
242.
Horn H, Federspiel A, Wirth M, Muller TJ, Wiest R, Wang JJ, Strik W: Structural and metabolic changes in language areas linked to formal thought disorder. Br J Psychiatry 2009;194:130–138.
[PubMed]
243.
Kerns JG: Verbal communication impairments and cognitive control components in people with schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 2007;116:279–289.
[PubMed]
244.
Bach DR, Herdener M, Grandjean D, Sander D, Seifritz E, Strik WK: Altered lateralisation of emotional prosody processing in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2009;110:180–187.
[PubMed]
245.
Kring AM, Moran EK: Emotional response deficits in schizophrenia: insights from affective science. Schizophr Bull 2008;34:819–834.
© 2012 S. Karger AG, Basel
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
2012
You do not currently have access to this content.
