Eating disorders (ED) including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorder (BED) affect up to 5% of the population in Western countries. Risk factors for developing an ED include personality traits, family environment, gender, age, ethnicity, and culture. Despite being moderately to highly heritable with estimates ranging from 28 to 83%, no genetic risk factors have been conclusively identified. Our objective was to explore evolutionary theories of EDs to provide a new perspective on research into novel biological mechanisms and genetic causes of EDs. We developed a framework that explains the possible interactions between genetic risk and cultural influences in the development of ED. The framework includes three genetic predisposition categories (people with mainly AN restrictive gene variants, people with mainly BED variants, and people with gene variants predisposing to both diseases) and a binary variable of either the presence or absence of pressure to be thin. We propose novel theories to explain the overlapping characteristics of the subtypes of AN (binge/purge and restrictive), BN, and BED. For instance, mutations/structural gene variants in the same gene causing opposite effects or mutations in nearby genes resulting in partial disequilibrium for the genes causing AN (restrictive) and BED may explain the overlap of phenotypes seen in AN (binge/purge).

Keywords:
Eating disorders, Binge eating disorder, Anorexia nervosa, Bulimia nervosa, Heritability, Molecular genetics, Evolution
1.
Hudson JI, Hiripi E, Pope H, Kessler RC: The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Biol Psychiatry 2008;61:348-358.
2.
Striegel-Moore RH: Risk factors for eating disorders. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007;817:98-109.
3.
Mazzeo SE, Mitchell KS, Bulik CM, Reichborn- T, Kendler KS, Neale MC: Assessing the heritability of anorexia nervosa symptoms using a marginal maximal likelihood approach. Psychol Med 2009;39:463-473.
4.
Slof-Op 't Landt MCT, van Furth EF, Meulenbelt I, Slagboom PE, Bartels M, Boomsma DI, et al: Eating disorders: from twin studies to candidate genes and beyond. Twin Res Hum Genet 2005;8:467-482.
5.
Thornton LM, Mazzeo SE, Bulik CM: The heritability of eating disorders: methods and current findings. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2011;6:141-156.
6.
Hinney A, Volckmar AL: Genetics of eating disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2013;15.
7.
American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 5. Arlington, American Psychiatric Association, 2013.
8.
Grilo CM: Why no cognitive body image feature such as overvaluation of shape/weight in the binge eating disorder diagnosis? Int J Eat Disord 2013;46:208-211.
9.
Fornari VM, Braun DL, Sunday SR, Sandberg DE, Matthews M, Chen I, et al: Seasonal patterns in eating disorder subgroups. Compr Psychiatry 1994;35:450-456.
10.
Favaro A, Ferrara S, Santonastaso P: The spectrum of eating disorders in young women: a prevalence study in a general population sample. Psychosom Med 2003;65:701-708.
11.
Hoek HW, van Hoeken D: Review of the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2003;34:383-396.
12.
Currin L, Schmidt U, Treasure J, Jick H: Time trends in eating disorder incidence. Br J Psychiatry 2005;186:132-135.
13.
Hoek HW: Incidence, prevalence and mortality of anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2006;19:389-394.
14.
van Son GE, van Hoeken D, Bartelds AI, van Furth EF, Hoek HW: Time trends in the incidence of eating disorders: a primary care study in the Netherlands. Int J Eat Disord 2006;39:565-569.
15.
Wade TD, Bergin JL, Tiggemann M, Bulik CM, Fairburn CG: Prevalence and long-term course of lifetime eating disorders in an adult Australian twin cohort. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2006;40:121-128.
16.
Preti A, de Girolamo G, Vilagut G, Alonso J, de Graaf R, Bruffaerts R, et al: The epidemiology of eating disorders in six European countries: results of the ESEMeD-WMH project. J Psychiatr Res 2009;43:1125-1132.
17.
Marques L, Alegria M, Becker A, Chen C, Fang A, Chosak A, et al: Comparative prevalence, correlates of impairment, and service utilization for eating disorders across U.S. ethnic groups: implications for reducing ethnic disparities in health care access for eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2011;44:412-420.
18.
Heaner MK, Walsh BT: A history of the identification of the characteristics eating disturbances of bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorders and anorexia nervosa. Appetite 2013;65:185-188.
19.
Kessler RC, Berglund PA, Chiu WT, Deitz AC, Hudson JI, Shahly V, et al: The prevalence and correlates of binge eating disorder in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Biol Psychiatry 2013;73:904-914.
20.
Franko DL, Keshaviah A, Eddy KT, Krishna M, Davis MC, Keel PK, et al: A longitudinal investigation of mortality in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry 2013;170:917-925.
21.
Meczekalski B, Podfigurna-Stopa A, Katulski K: Long-term consequences of anorexia nervosa. Maturitas 2013;75:215-220.
22.
Keski-Rahkonen A, Hoek HW, Linna MS, Raevuori A, Sihvola E, Bulik CM, et al: Incidence and outcomes of bulimia nervosa: a nationwide population-based study. Psychol Med 2009;39:823-831.
23.
Smink FRE, van Hoeken D, Hoek HW: Epidemiology of eating disorders: incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2012;14:406-414.
24.
Kinzl JF, Traweger C, Trefalt E, Mangweth B, Biebl W: Binge eating disorder in females: a population-based investigation. Int J Eat Disord 1999;25:287-292.
25.
Spitzer R., Devlin M, Walsh TB, Hasin DS, Wing R, Marcus M, et al: Binge eating disorder: a multisite field trial of the diagnostic criteria. Int J Eat Disord 1992;11:191-204.
26.
Spitzer R, Yanovski SZ, Wadden T, Wing R, Marcus MD, Stunkard A, et al: Binge eating disorder: its further validation in a multi-site study. Int J Eat Disord 1993;13:137-154.
27.
Hay P: The epidemiology of eating disorder behaviors: an Australian community-based survey. Int J Eat Disord 1998;23:371-382.
28.
Alegria M, Woo M, Cao Z, Torres M, Meng X, Striegel-Moore R: Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in Latinos in the United States. Int J Eat Disord 2007;40:S15-S21.
29.
Grucza RA, Przybeck TR, Cloninger CR: Prevalence and correlates of binge eating disorder in a community sample. Compr Psychiatry 2007;48:124-131.
30.
Klump KL, Miller KB, Keel PK, McGue M, Iacono WG: Genetic and environmental influences on anorexia nervosa syndromes in a population-based twin sample. Psychol Med 2001;31:737-740.
31.
Hoek H, van Harten PN, Hermans KME, Katzman MA, Matroos GE, Susser ES: The Incidence of Anorexia Nervosa on Curaçao. Am J Psychiatry 2005;162:748-752.
32.
Striegel-Moore RH, Dohm FA, Kraemer HC, Taylor CB, Daniels S, Crawford PB, et al: Eating disorders in white and black women. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1326-1331.
33.
Taylor JY, Caldwell CH, Baser RE, Matuski N, Faison N, Jackson JS: Classification and correlates of eating disorders among blacks: findings from the National Survey of American Life. J Health Care Poor Underserved 2013;24:289-310.
34.
Keel PK, Klump KL: Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes? Implications for conceptualizing their etiology. Psychol Bull 2003;129:747-769.
35.
Nicdao EG, Hong S, Takeuchi DT: Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders among Asian Americans: results from the National Latino and Asian American Study. Int J Eat Disord 2007;40:S22-S26.
36.
Smith DE, Marcus MD, Lewis CE, Fitzgibbon M, Schreiner P: Prevalence of binge eating disorder, obesity, and depression in a biracial cohort of young adults. Ann Behav Med 1998;20:227-232.
37.
Hay PJ, Mond J, Buttner P, Darby A: Eating disorder behaviors are increasing: findings from two sequential community surveys in South Australia. PLoS One 2008;3:e1541.
38.
Keel PK, Heatherton TF, Dorer DJ, Joiner TE, Zalta AK: Point prevalence of bulimia nervosa in 1982, 1992, and 2002. Psychol Med 2006;36:119-127.
39.
Cassin SE, von Ranson KM: Personality and eating disorders: a decade in review. Clin Psychol Rev 2005;25:895-916.
40.
Kaye W: Neurobiology of anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Physiol Behav 2008;94:121-135.
41.
Jaite C, Hoffmann F, Glaeske G, Bachmann CJ: Prevalence, comorbidities and outpatient treatment of anorexia and bulimia nervosa in German children and adolescents. Eat Weight Disord 2013;18:157-165.
42.
Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Bulik CM, Sullivan PF, Tambs K, Harris JR: Psychiatric and medical symptoms in binge eating in the absence of compensatory behaviors. Obes Res 2004;12:1445-1454.
43.
Keski-Rahkonen A, Raevuori A, Bulik CM, Hoek HW, Sihvola E, Kaprio J, et al: Depression and drive for thinness are associated with persistent bulimia nervosa in the community. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2013;21:121-129.
44.
Mazzeo S, Bulik C: Environmental and genetic risk factors for eating disorders: what the clinician needs to know. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North 2009;18:1-15.
45.
Klump KL, Wonderlich S, Lehoux P, Lilenfeld LRR, Bulik CM: Does environment matter? A review of nonshared environment and eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2002;31:118-135.
46.
Kardum I, Gra A, Hudek-Kneževi J: Evolutionary explanations of eating disorders. Psychol Top 2008;17:247-263.
47.
O'Shaughnessy R, Dallos R: Attachment research and eating disorders: a review of the literature. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2009;14:559-574.
48.
Holtom-Viesel A, Allan S: A systematic review of the literature on family functioning across all eating disorder diagnoses in comparison to control families. Clin Psychol Rev 2014;34:29-43.
49.
Fairburn CG, Harrison PJ: Eating disorders. Lancet 2003;361:407-416.
50.
Kaye WH, Wierenga CE, Bailer UF, Simmons AN, Bischoff-Grethe A: Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels: the neurobiology of anorexia nervosa. Trends Neurosci 2013;36:110-120.
51.
Wierenga CE, Ely A, Bischoff-Grethe A, Bailer UF, Simmons AN, Kaye WH: Are extremes of consumption in eating disorders related to an altered balance between reward and inhibition? Front Behav Neurosci 2014;8:410.
52.
Jacobi C, Hayward C, de Zwaan M, Kraemer HC, Agras WS: Coming to terms with risk factors for eating disorders: application of risk terminology and suggestions for a general taxonomy. Psychol Bull 2004;130:19-65.
53.
Kaye WH, Wierenga CE, Bailer UF, Simmons AN, Bischoff-Grethe A: Nothing tastes as good as skinny feels: the neurobiology of anorexia nervosa. Trends Neurosci 2013;36:110-120.
54.
O'Hara CB, Campbell IC, Schmidt U: A reward-centred model of anorexia nervosa: a focussed narrative review of the neurological and psychophysiological literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015;52:131-152.
55.
O'Hara CB, Keyes A, Renwick B, Leyton M, Campbell IC, Schmidt U: The effects of acute dopamine precursor depletion on the reinforcing value of exercise in anorexia nervosa. PLoS One 2016;11:e0145894.
56.
Teare MD, Barrett J: Genetic epidemiology 2: genetic linkage studies. Lancet 2005;366:1036-1044.
57.
Zhu M, Zhao S: Candidate gene identification approach: progress and challenges. Int J Biol Sci 2007;3:420-427.
58.
Bush WS, Moore JH: Chapter 11: Genome-wide association studies. PLoS Comput Biol 2012;8:e1002822.
59.
Booij L, Casey KF, Antunes JM, Szyf M, Joober R, Israël M, et al: DNA methylation in individuals with anorexia nervosa and in matched normal-eater controls: a genome-wide study. Int J Eat Disord 2015;48:874-882.
60.
Wray NR, Visscher PM: Estimating trait heritability. Nat Educ 2008;1:29.
61.
Tenesa A, Haley CS: The heritability of human disease: estimation, uses and abuses. Nat Rev 2013;14:139-149.
62.
Munn-Chernoff M, Grant JD, Agrawal A, Koren R, Glowinski AL, Bucholz KK, et al: Are there common familial influences for major depressive disorder and an overeating-binge eating dimension in both European-American and African-American female twins? Int J Eat Disord 2015;48:375-382.
63.
Munn-Chernoff M, Grant JD, Agrawal A, Sartor CE, Werner KB, Bucholz KK, et al: Genetic overlap between alcohol use disorder and bulimic behaviors in European American and African American women. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016;153:335-340.
64.
Lander E, Kruglyak L: Genetic dissection of complex traits: guidelines for interpreting and reporting linkage results. Nat Genet 1995;11:241-247.
65.
Grice DE, Halmi KA, Fichter MM, Strober M, Woodside DB, Treasure JT, et al: Evidence for a susceptibility gene for anorexia nervosa on chromosome 1. Am J Hum Genet 2002;70:787-792.
66.
Devlin B, Bacanu S-A, Klump KL, Bulik CM, Fichter MM, Halmi KA, et al: Linkage analysis of anorexia nervosa incorporating behavioral covariates. Hum Mol Genet 2002;11:689-696.
67.
Bulik CM, Devlin B, Bacanu S-A, Thornton L, Klump KL, Fichter MM, et al: Significant linkage on chromosome 10p in families with bulimia nervosa. Am J Hum Genet 2003;72:200-207.
68.
Hager J, Dina C, Francke S, Dubois S, Houari M, Vatin V, et al: A genome-wide scan for human obesity genes reveals a major susceptibility locus on chromosome 10. Nat Genet 1998;20:304-308.
69.
Hinney A, Ziegler A, Oeffner F, Wedewardt C, Vogel M, Qulftange H, et al: Independent confirmation of a major locus for obesity on chromosome 10. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:2962-2965.
70.
Groves CJ, Zeggini E, Walker M, Hitman GA, Levy JC, O'Rahilly S, et al: Significant linkage of BMI to chromosome 10p in the U.K. population and evaluation of GAD2 as a positional candidate. Diabetes 2006;55:1884-1889.
71.
Li A, Meyre D: Challenges in reproducibility of genetic association studies: lessons learned from the obesity field. Int J Obes 2013;559-567.
72.
Yilmaz Z, Hardaway JA, Bulik CM: Genetics and epigenetics of eating disorders. Adv Genomics Genet 2015;5:131.
73.
Monteleone P, Maj M: Dysfunctions of leptin, ghrelin, BDNF and endocannabinoids in eating disorders: beyond the homeostatic control of food intake. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013;38:312-330.
74.
Trace SE, Baker JH, Peñas-Lledó E, Bulik CM: The genetics of eating disorders. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2013;9:589-620.
75.
Brandys MK, Van Elburg AA, Loos RJF, Bauer F, Hendriks J, Van Der Schouw YT, et al: Are recently identified genetic variants regulating BMI in the general population associated with anorexia nervosa? Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2010;153:695-699.
76.
Gervasini G, Gamero-Villarroel C: Discussing the putative role of obesity-associated genes in the etiopathogenesis of eating disorders. Pharmacogenomics 2015;16:1287-1305.
77.
Hinney A, Kesselmeier M, Jall S, Volckmar A-L, Föcker M, Antel J, et al: Evidence for three genetic loci involved in both anorexia nervosa risk and variation of body mass index. Mol Psychiatry 2017;22:192-201.
78.
Bulik-Sullivan B, Finucane HK, Anttila V, Gusev A, Day FR, et al: An atlas of genetic correlations across human diseases and traits. Nat Genet 2015;47:1236-1241.
79.
Wang K, Zhang H, Bloss CS, Duvvuri V, Kaye W, Schork NJ, et al: A genome-wide association study on common SNPs and rare CNVs in anorexia nervosa. Mol Psychiatry 2011;16:949-959.
80.
Winham SJ, Cuellar-Barboza AB, McElroy SL, Oliveros A, Crow S, Solby CL, et al: Bipolar disorder with comorbid binge eating history: a genome-wide association study implicates APOB. J Affect Disord 2014;165:151-158.
81.
Boraska V, Davis OSP, Cherkas LF, Helder SG, Harris J, Krug I, et al: Genome-wide association analysis of eating disorder-related symptoms, behaviors, and personality traits. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2012;159B:803-811.
82.
Boraska V, Franklin CS, Floyd JAB, Thornton LM, Huckins LM, Southam L, et al: A genome-wide association study of anorexia nervosa. Mol Psychiatry 2014;19:1085-1094.
83.
Li D, Chang X, Connolly JJ, Tian L, Liu Y, Bhoj EJ, et al: A genome-wide association study of anorexia nervosa suggests a risk locus implicated in dysregulated leptin signaling. Sci Rep 2017;7:3847.
84.
Duncan L, Yilmaz Z, Gaspar H, Walters R, Goldstein J, Anttila V, et al: Significant locus and metabolic genetic correlations revealed in genome-wide association study of anorexia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry 2017;174:850-858.
85.
Wade TD, Gordon S, Medland S, Bulik CM, Heath AC, Montgomery GW, et al: Genetic variants associated with disordered eating. Int J Eat Disord 2013;46:594-608.
86.
Cui H, Moore J, Ashimi SS, Mason BL, Drawbridge JN, Han S, et al: Eating disorder predisposition is associated with ESRRA and HDAC4 mutations. J Clin Invest 2013;123:4706-4713.
87.
Darcy MJ, Calvin K, Cavnar K, Ouimet CC: Regional and subcellular distribution of HDAC4 in mouse brain. J Comp Neurol 2010;518:722-740.
88.
Sando III R, Gounko N, Pieraut S, Liao L, Yates III J, Maximov A: HDAC4 governs a transcriptional program essential for snypatic plasticity and memory. Cell 2010;151:821-834.
89.
Mattson MP: Mitochondrial regulation of neuronal plasticity. Neurochem Res 2007;32:707-715.
90.
Ren Y, Jiang H, Ma D, Nakaso K, Feng J: Parkin degrades estrogen-related receptors to limit the expression of monoamine oxidases. Hum Mol Genet 2011;20:1074-1083.
91.
Liu D, Zhang Z, Gladwell W, Teng CT: Estrogen stimulates estrogen-related receptor α gene expression through conserved hormone response elements. Endocrinology 2003;144:4894-4904.
92.
Bochukova EG, Huang N, Keogh J, Henning E, Purmann C, Blaszczyk K, et al: Large, rare chromosomal deletions associated with severe early-onset obesity. Nature 2010;463:666-670.
93.
Walters RG, Jacquemont S, Valsesia A, de Smith A, Martinet D, Andersson J, et al: A new highly penetrant form of obesity due to deletions on chromosome 16p11.2. Nature 2010;463:671-675.
94.
Doche ME, Bochukova EG, Su H, Pearce LR, Keogh JM, Henning E, et al: Human SH2B1 mutations are associated with maladaptive behaviors and obesity. J Clin Invest 2012;122:4732-4736.
95.
Gill R, Chen Q, D'Angelo D, Chung WK: Eating in the absence of hunger but not loss of control behaviors are associated with 16p11.2 deletions. Obesity 2014;22:2625-2631.
96.
Maillard AM, Hippolyte L, Rodriguez-Herreros B, Chawner SJRA, Dremmel D, Agüera Z, et al: 16P11.2 Locus modulates response to satiety before the onset of obesity. Int J Obes (Lond) 2015;40:870-876.
97.
Jacquemont S, Reymond A, Zufferey F, Harewood L, Walters RG, Kutalik Z, et al: Mirror extreme BMI phenotypes associated with gene dosage at the chromosome 16p11.2 locus. Nature 2011;478:97-102.
98.
Strober M, Peris T, Steiger H: The plasticity of development: how knowledge of epigenetics may advance understanding of eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2014;47:696-704.
99.
Frieling H, Gozner A, Römer KD, Lenz B, Bönsch D, Wilhelm J, et al: Global DNA hypomethylation and DNA hypermethylation of the alpha synuclein promoter in females with anorexia nervosa. Mol Psychiatry 2007;12:229-230.
100.
Frieling H, Bleich S, Otten J, Römer KD, Kornhuber J, de Zwaan M, et al: Epigenetic downregulation of atrial natriuretic peptide but not vasopressin mRNA expression in females with eating disorders is related to impulsivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008;33:2605-2609.
101.
Kim Y-R, Kim J-H, Kim MJ, Treasure J: Differential methylation of the oxytocin receptor gene in patients with anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. PLoS One 2014;9:e88673.
102.
Ehrlich S, Weiss D, Burghardt R, Infante-Duarte C, Brockhaus S, Muschler MA, et al: Promoter specific DNA methylation and gene expression of POMC in acutely underweight and recovered patients with anorexia nervosa. J Psychiatr Res 2010;44:827-833.
103.
Frieling H, Rómer KD, Scholz S, Mittelbach F, Wilhelm J, De Zwaan M, et al: Epigenetic dysregulation of dopaminergic genes in eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2010;43:577-583.
104.
Saffrey R, Novakovic B, Wade TD: Assessing global and gene specific DNA methylation in anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. Int J Eat Disord 2014;47:206-210.
105.
Tremolizzo L, Conti E, Bomba M, Uccellini O, Rossi MS, Marfone M, et al: Decreased whole-blood global DNA methylation is related to serum hormones in anorexia nervosa adolescents. World J Biol Psychiatry 2014;15:327-333.
106.
Kesselmeier M, Pütter C, Volckmar A-L, Baurecht H, Grallert H, Illig T, et al: High-throughput DNA methylation analysis in anorexia nervosa confirms TNXB hypermethylation. World J Biol Psychiatry, Epub ahead of print.
107.
Perroud N, Paoloni-Giacobino A, Prada P, Olié E, Salzmann A, Nicastro R, et al: Increased methylation of glucocorticoid receptor gene (NR3C1) in adults with a history of childhood maltreatment: a link with the severity and type of trauma. Transl Psychiatry 2011;1:e59.
108.
Baker JH, Maes HH, Lissner L, Aggen SH, Lichtenstein P, Kendler KS: Genetic risk factors for disordered eating in adolescent males and females. J Abnorm Psychol 2002;118:576-586.
109.
Keski-Rahkonen A, Bulik CM, Neale BM, Rose RJ, Rissanen A, Kaprio J: Body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness in young adult twins. Int J Eat Disord 2005;37:188-199.
110.
Keski-Rahkonen A, Neale BM, Bulik CM, Pietilainen KH, Rose RJ, Kaprio J, et al: Intentional weight loss in young adults: sex-specific genetic and environmental effects. Obes Res 2005;13:745-753.
111.
Slof-Op 't Landt MCT, Bartels M, Van Furth EF, Van Beijsterveldt CEM, Meulenbelt I, Slagboom PE, et al: Genetic influences on disordered eating behaviour are largely independent of body mass index. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2008;117:348-356.
112.
Wolfe BE, Baker CW, Smith AT, Kelly-Weeder S: Validity and utility of the current definition of binge eating. Int J Eat Disord 2009;42:674-686.
113.
Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Bulik CM, Kendler KS, Røysamb E, Maes H, Tambs K, et al: Gender differences in binge-eating: a population-based twin study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003;108:196-202.
114.
Neul JL, Kaufmann WE, Glaze DG, Clarke AJ, Leonard H, Bailey MES, et al: Rett syndrome: revised diagnostic criteria and nomenclature. Ann Neurol 2010;68:944-950.
115.
Klump KL, Burt A, McGue M, Iacono W: Changes in genetic and environmental influences on disordered eating between early and late adolescence: a longitudinal twin study. Psychol Med 2007;45:3249-3258.
116.
Silberg JL, Bulik CM: The developmental association between eating disorders symptoms and symptoms of depression and anxiety in juvenile twin girls. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2005;46:1317-1326.
117.
Culbert KM, Burt A, McGue M, Iacono WG, Klump KL: Puberty and the genetic diathesis of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. J Abnorm Psychol 2009;118:788-796.
118.
Östlund H, Keller E, Hurd YL: Estrogen receptor gene expression in relation to neuropsychiatric disorders. Ann NY Acad Sci 2003;1007:54-63.
119.
Asarian L, Geary N: Sex differences in the physiology of eating. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2013;305:R1215-R1267.
120.
Wasser SK, Barash DP: Reproductive suppression among female mammals: implications for biomedicine and sexual selection theory. Q Rev Biol 1983;58:513-538.
121.
Abed R: The sexual competition hypothesis for eating disorders. Br J Med Psychol 1998;71:525-547.
122.
Guisinger S: Adapted to flee famine: adding an evolutionary perspective on anorexia nervosa. Psychol Rev 2003;110:745-761.
123.
Wells JCK: The evolution of human fatness and susceptibility to obesity: an ethological approach. Biol Rev 2006;81:183-205.
124.
Speakman JR, Levitsky DA, Allison DB, Bray MS, de Castro JM, Clegg DJ, et al: Set points, settling points and some alternative models: theoretical options to understand how genes and environments combine to regulate body adiposity. Dis Model Mech 2011;4:733-745.
125.
Field AE, Sonneville KR, Micali N, Crosby RD, Swanson SA, Laird NM, et al: Prospective association of common eating disorders and adverse outcomes. Pediatrics 2012;130: e289-e295.
126.
Kaye WH, Klump KL, Frank GK, Strober M: Anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Annu Rev Med 2000;51:299-313.
127.
Neel J V: Diabetes mellitus: a “thrifty” genotype rendered detrimental by “progress.” Am J Hum Genet 1962;14:353-362.
128.
Swinburn BA, Sacks G, Hall KD, McPherson K, Finegood DT, Moodie ML, et al: The global obesity pandemic: shaped by global drivers and local environments. Lancet 2011;378:804-814.
129.
Mitchell NS, Catenacci VA, Wyatt HR, Hill JO: Obesity: overview of an epidemic. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2011;34:717-732.
130.
Scolnick B, Mostofsky DI: Anorexia nervosa: a rogue hibernation? Med Hypotheses 2014;82:231-235.
131.
Farooqi SI, Keogh JM, Yeo GSH, Lank EJ, Cheetham T, O'Rahilly S: Clinical spectrum of obesity and mutations in the melanocortin 4 receptor gene. N Engl J Med 2003;348:2373-2383.
132.
Geller F, Reichwald K, Dempfle A, Illig T, Vollmert C, Herpertz S, et al: Melanocortin-4 receptor gene variant I103 is negatively associated with obesity. Am J Hum Genet 2004;74:572-581.
133.
Stutzmann F, Vatin V, Cauchi S, Morandi A, Jouret B, Landt O, et al: Non-synonymous polymorphisms in melanocortin-4 receptor protect against obesity: the two facets of a Janus obesity gene. Hum Mol Genet 2007;16:1837-1844.
134.
Hebebrand J, Fichter M, Gerber G, Goerg T, Hermann H, Geller F, et al: Genetic predisposition to obesity in bulimia nervosa: a mutation screen of the melanocortin-4 receptor gene. Mol Psychiatry 2002;7:647-651.
135.
Branson R, Potoczna N, Kral JG, Lentes KU, Hoehe MR, Horber FF: Binge eating as a major phenotype of melanocortin 4 receptor gene mutations. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1096-1103.
136.
Stutzmann F, Tan K, Vatin V, Dina C, Jouret B, Tichet J, et al: Prevalence of melanocortin-4 receptor deficiency in Europeans and their age-dependent penetrance in multigenerational pedigrees. Diabetes 2008;57:2511-2518.
137.
Gamero-Villarroel C, Rodriguez-Lopez R, Jimenez M, Carrillo JA, Garcia-Herraiz A, Albuquerque D, et al: Melanocortin-4 receptor gene variants are not associated with binge-eating behavior in nonobese patients with eating disorders. Psychiatr Genet 2015;25:35-38.
138.
Urwin RE, Bennetts BH, Wilcken B, Beumont PJ V, Russell JD, Nunn KP: Investigation of epistasis between the serotonin transporter and norepinephrine transporter genes in anorexia nervosa. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003;28:1351-1355.
139.
Urwin RE, Nunn KP: Epistatic interaction between the monoamine oxidase A and serotonin transporter genes in anorexia nervosa. Eur J Hum Genet 2005;13:370-375.
140.
Thaler L, Groleau P, Badawi G, Sycz L, Zeramdini N, Too A, et al: Epistatic interactions implicating dopaminergic genes in bulimia nervosa (BN): relationships to eating- and personality-related psychopathology. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012;39:120-128.
141.
Stice E, Shaw HE: Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology: a synthesis of research findings. J Psychosom Res 2002;53:985-993.
142.
Neumark-Sztainer DR, Wall MM, Haines JI, Story MT, Sherwood NE, van den Berg PA: Shared risk and protective factors for overweight and disordered eating in adolescents. Am J Prev Med 2007;33:359-369.
143.
Pike KM, Dohm FA, Striegel-Moore RH, Wilfley DE, Fairburn CG: A comparison of black and white women with binge eating disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:1455-1460.
144.
Gluck ME, Geliebter A: Racial/ethnic differences in body image and eating behaviors. Eat Behav 2002;3:143-151.
145.
Simpson KJ: Anorexia nervosa and culture. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2002;9:65-71.
146.
Becker AE, Fay K, Gilman SE, Striegel-Moore R: Facets of acculturation and their diverse relations to body shape concern in Fiji. Int J Eat Disord 2007;40:42-50.
147.
Becker AE, Burwell RA, Gilman SE, Herzog DB, Hamburg P: Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. Br J Psychiatry 2002;180:509-514.
148.
Klump KL: Puberty as a critical risk period for eating disorders: a review of human and animal studies. Horm Behav 2013;64:399-410.
149.
Stephens M, Baliding DJ: Bayesian statistical methods for genetic association studies. Nat Rev Genet 2009;10:681-90.
150.
Bulik CM, Kleiman SC, Yilmaz Z: Genetic epidemiology of eating disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2016;383-388.
151.
Aschard H, Lutz S, Maus B, Duell EJ, Fingerlin TE, Chatterjee N, et al: Challenges and opportunities in genome-wide environmental interaction (GWEI) studies. Hum Genet 2012;131:1591-1613.
152.
Deng WQ, Paré G: A fast algorithm to optimize SNP prioritization for gene-gene and gene-environment interactions. Genet Epidemiol 2011;35:729-738.
© 2017 S. Karger AG, Basel
2017
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.