Abstract
Objective: To describe the secular trend in pubertal development in relation to the secular trend in height. Methods: Literature review of cross-sectional, longitudinal and twin studies. Results: Globally, there is a secular trend in adolescent growth for an increased mean final height at adulthood. To a lesser extent, there is also a secular trend towards earlier puberty. However, it seems that the two trends are not strongly connected. The increase in average height over the generations can, to a large extent, be explained by an earlier onset of the growth hormone-dependent phase of growth in early life. The age when this growth ‘spurt’ occurs in childhood strongly correlates with final height, but is not related to the age at peak height velocity during puberty. There is a large variation in the timing of the onset of puberty; it is largely influenced genetically, as implied by studies in twins. The single environmental factor that stands out as most significant – possibly explaining as much as 25% of the variation in the timing of puberty – is simply nutritional status in childhood; overnutrition and obesity seem to trigger pubertal onset. However, recent studies have identified that both shortness and thinness at birth are also associated with earlier pubertal maturation – a reverse of their impact during childhood years. Conclusions: More longitudinal studies are needed to understand the short- and long-term consequences of secular changes in both final height and pubertal development before we know how important the trends are.
References
1.
Marshall WA, Tanner JM: Growth and physiological development during adolescence. Annu Rev Med 1968;19:283–300.
2.
Karlberg P, Taranger J, Engstrom I, Karlberg J, Landstrom T, Lichtenstein H, Lindstrom B, Svennberg-Redegren I: I. Physical growth from birth to 16 years and longitudinal outcome of the study during the same age period. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 1976;258:7–76.
3.
Marshall WA, Tanner JM: Variations in the pattern of pubertal changes in boys. Arch Dis Child 1970;45:13–23.
4.
Marshall WA, Tanner JM: Variations in pattern of pubertal changes in girls. Arch Dis Child 1969;44:291–303.
5.
Tanner JM: Growth at Adolescence, ed 2. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1962.
6.
Taranger J, Engstrom I, Lichtenstein H, Svennberg-Redegren I: VI. Somatic pubertal development. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 1976;258:121–135.
7.
Bourguignon JP: Growth and timing of puberty: reciprocal effects. Horm Res 1991;36:131–135.
8.
Bourguignon JP: Linear growth as a function of age at onset of puberty and sex steroid dosage: therapeutic implications. Endocr Rev 1988;9:467–488.
9.
Karlberg J: On the modelling of human growth. Stat Med 1987;6:185–192.
10.
Karlberg J, Fryer JG, Engström I, Karlberg P: Analysis of linear growth using a mathematical model. II. From 3 to 21 years of age. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 1987;337:12–29.
11.
Karlberg J: The human growth curve; in Ulijaszek SJ, Johnston FE, Preece MA (eds): The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Growth and Development. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp 108–115.
12.
Hagg U, Taranger J: Skeletal stages of the hand and wrist as indicators of the pubertal growth spurt. Acta Odontol Scand 1980;38:187–200.
13.
Karlberg J, Boepple PA: Final height as reflected by prepubertal height and the timing of puberty; in Grave GD, Cutler GB Jr (eds): Sexual Precocity: Etiology, Diagnosis and Management. New York, Raven Press, 1993, pp 85–95.
14.
Ranke MB, Pfluger H, Rosendahl W, Stubbe P, Enders H, Bierich JR, Majewski F: Turner syndrome: spontaneous growth in 150 cases and review of the literature. Eur J Pediatr 1983;141:81–88.
15.
Apter D: Hormonal events during female puberty in relation to breast cancer risk. Eur J Cancer Prev 1996;5:476–482.
16.
Cole TJ: Secular trends in growth. Proc Nutr Soc 2000;59:317–324.
17.
Hermanussen M, Burmeister J, Burkhardt V: Stature and stature distribution in recent West German and historical samples of Italian and Dutch conscripts. Am J Hum Biol 1995;7:507–515.
18.
Van Wieringen JC: Secular growth changes; in Falkner F, Tanner JM (eds): Human Growth: A Comprehensive Treatise, vol. 3: Methodology; Ecological, Genetic and Nutritional Effects on Growth. New York, Plenum Press, 1986, pp 307–331.
19.
Luo ZC, Albertsson-Wikland K, Karlberg J: Target height as predicted by parental heights in a population-based study. Pediatr Res 1998;44:563–571.
20.
de Muinich Keizer SM, Mul D: Trends in pubertal development in Europe. Hum Reprod Update 2001;7:287–291.
21.
Hauspie RC, Vercauteren M, Susanne C: Secular changes in growth. Horm Res 1996;45:8–17.
22.
Liu YX, Albertsson-Wikland K, Karlberg J: New reference for the age at childhood onset of growth and secular trend in the timing of puberty in Swedish. Acta Paediatr 2000;89:637–643.
23.
Karlberg J, Jalil F, Lam B, Low L, Yeung CY: Linear growth retardation in relation to the three phases of growth. Eur J Clin Nutr 1994;48(suppl 1):S25–S44.
24.
Low LC, Tam SY, Kwan EY, Tsang AM, Karlberg J: Onset of significant GH dependence of serum IGF-I and IGF-binding protein 3 concentrations in early life. Pediatr Res 2001;50:737–742.
25.
Liu YX, Jalil F, Karlberg J: Growth stunting in early life in relation to the onset of the childhood component of growth. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 1998;11:247–260.
26.
Liu YX, Jalil F, Karlberg J: Risk factors for impaired length growth in early life viewed in terms of the infancy-childhood-puberty (ICP) growth model. Acta Paediatr 1998;87:237–243
27.
Liu YX, Li HQ, Yang XO, Karlberg J: Early linear growth retardation in Chongqing, China. J Paediatr Child Health 1999;35:272–277.
28.
Xu X, Wang W, Guo ZP, Karlberg J: Longitudinal growth during infancy and childhood in children from Shanghai (n = 1623) – predictors and consequences of the age at onset of the childhood phase of growth. Pediatr Res, in press.
29.
Liu Y, Albertsson-Wikland K, Karlberg J: Long-term consequences of early linear growth retardation (stunting) in Swedish children. Pediatr Res 2000;47:475–480.
30.
Tam SYM, Karlberg J, Sheng HP, Kwan EYW, Tsang AMC, Baber F, Low LCK: The improvement in growth, socioeconomic and health status in Hong Kong Chinese infants in the first two years of life –1967 to 1994. Hong Kong J Paediatr 1999;4:3–9.
31.
Huen KF, Leung SS, Lau JT, Cheung AY, Leung NK, Chiu MC: Secular trend in the sexual maturation of southern Chinese girls. Acta Paediatr 1997;86:1121–1124.
32.
Carter CO, Marshall MA: The genetics of adult stature; in Falkner F, Tanner JM (eds): Human Growth, vol. 1. Principles and Prenatal Growth. London, Bailliere Tindall, 1978, pp 299–305.
33.
Kaprio J, Rimpela A, Winter T, Viken RJ, Rimpela M, Rose RJ: Common genetic influences on BMI and age at menarche. Hum Biol 1995;67:739–753.
34.
Sklad M: The rate of growth and maturing of twins. Acta Genet Med Gemellol (Roma) 1977;26:221–237.
35.
Sharma JC: The genetic contribution to pubertal growth and development studied by longitudinal growth data on twins. Ann Hum Biol 1983;10:163–171.
36.
Persson I, Ahlsson F, Ewald U, Tuvemo T, Qingyuan M, von Rosen D, Proos L: Influence of perinatal factors on the onset of puberty in boys and girls: implications for interpretation of link with risk of long term diseases. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:747–755.
37.
Luo ZC, Cheung YB, He Q, Albertsson-Wikland K, Karlberg J: Timing and magnitude of pubertal growth and its characteristics. Submitted.
38.
Ibáñez L, Ferrer A, Marcos MV, Hierro FR, de Zegher F: Early puberty: rapid progression and reduced final height in girls with low birth weight. Pediatrics 2000;106:E72.
39.
Adair LS: Size at birth predicts age at menarche. Pediatrics 2001;107:E59.
40.
He Q, Karlberg J: BMI in childhood and its association with height gain, timing of puberty, and final height. Pediatr Res 2001;49:244–251.
41.
Adair LS, Gordon-Larsen P: Maturational timing and overweight prevalence in US adolescent girls. Am J Public Health 2001;91:642–644.
42.
Frisch RE, Revelle R, Cook S: Components of weight at menarche and the initiation of the adolescent growth spurt in girls: estimated total water, lean body weight and fat. Hum Biol 1973;45:469–483.
43.
Billewicz WZ, Fellowes HM, Hytten CA: Comments on the critical metabolic mass and the age of menarche. Ann Hum Biol 1976;3:51–59.
44.
Hassink SG, Sheslow DV, de Lancey E, Opentanova I, Considine RV, Caro JF: Serum leptin in children with obesity: relationship to gender and development. Pediatrics 1996;98:201–203.
45.
Fors H, Matsuoka H, Bosaeus I, Rosberg S, Albertsson-Wikland K, Bjarnason R: Serum leptin levels correlate with growth hormone secretion and body fat in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999;84:3586–3590.
46.
Ong KK, Ahmed ML, Dunger DB: The role of leptin in human growth and puberty. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999;88:95–98.
47.
Carlsson B, Ankarberg C, Rosberg S, Norjavaara E, Albertsson-Wikland K, Carlsson LM: Serum leptin concentrations in relation to pubertal development. Arch Dis Child 1997;77:396–400.
48.
Vogel G: Leptin: a trigger for puberty? Science 1996;274:1466–1467.
49.
Bass S, Bradney M, Pearce G, Hendrich E, Inge K, Stuckey S, Lo SK, Seeman E: Short stature and delayed puberty in gymnasts: influence of selection bias on leg length and the duration of training on trunk length. J Pediatr 2000;136:149–155.
50.
von Kalckreuth G, Haverkamp F, Kessler M, Rosskamp RH: Constitutional delay of growth and puberty: do they really reach their target height? Horm Res 1991;35:222–225.
51.
Barker DJ: The fetal and infant origins of disease. Eur J Clin Invest 1995;25:457–463.
52.
Whincup PH, Bredow M, Payne F, Sadler S, Golding J: Size at birth and blood pressure at 3 years of age. The Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ALSPAC). Am J Epidemiol 1999;149:730–739.
53.
Cheung YB, Low L, Osmond C, Barker D, Karlberg J: Fetal growth and early postnatal growth are related to blood pressure in adults. Hypertension 2000;36:795–800.
54.
Harigaya A, Nagashima K, Nako Y, Morikawa A: Relationship between concentration of serum leptin and fetal growth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82:3281–3284.
55.
Boguszewski M, Bjarnason R, Jansson C, Rosberg S, Albertsson-Wikland K: Hormonal status of short children born small for gestational age. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1997;423:189–192.
56.
Cance-Rouzaud A, Laborie S, Bieth E, Tricoire J, Rolland M, Grandjean H, Rochiccioli P, Tauber M: Growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 are regulated differently in small-for-gestational-age and appropriate-for-gestational-age neonates. Biol Neonate 1998;73:347–355.
57.
Boguszewski M, Dahlgren J, Bjarnason R, Rosberg S, Carlsson LM, Carlsson B, Albertsson-Wikland K: Serum leptin in short children born small for gestational age: relationship with the growth response to growth hormone treatment. The Swedish Study Group for Growth Hormone Treatment. Eur J Endocrinol 1997;137:387–395.
58.
Boguszewski M, Jansson C, Rosberg S, Albertsson-Wikland K: Changes in serum insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) and IGF-binding protein-3 levels during growth hormone treatment in prepubertal short children born small for gestational age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:3902–3908.
© 2002 S. Karger AG, Basel
2002
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.
