Abstract
Bringing together research from several lines of inquiry in psychology and education, we propose a conceptual model for understanding how entrenched inequalities embedded within ecological macrosystems play out in the classroom to affect student learning. We consider how implicit teacher beliefs and belief expressions affect teacher-student interactions and relationships, student learning-related processes, and student learning outcomes. First, we review the literature on how teacher beliefs relate to student learning outcomes. Second, we discuss how teacher beliefs may shape critical classroom-level and individual-level teacher-student interactions and how these interactions can affect student factors that are critical to learning. The Teacher Beliefs and Interactions Model, a conceptual model that brings together related bodies of work that have traditionally been separate, proposes teacher beliefs as an important area of inquiry for future empirical research in education and human development.
References
1.
Agirdag
, O.
, Loobuyck
, P.
, & Van Houtte
, M.
(2012
). Determinants of attitudes toward muslim students among flemish teachers: A research note
. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
, 51
(2
), 368
–376
.2.
Ainsworth
, M. S.
(1989
). Attachments beyond infancy
. American Psychologist
, 44
(4
), 709
–716
.3.
Alan
, S.
, Ertac
, S.
, & Mumcu
, I.
(2018
). Gender stereotypes in the classroom and effects on achievement
. The Review of Economics and Statistics
, 100
(5
), 876
–890
.4.
Alfaro
, E. C.
, Umaña-Taylor
, A. J.
, Gonzales-Backen
, M. A.
, Bámaca
, M. Y.
, & Zeiders
, K. H.
(2009
). Latino adolescents’ academic success: The role of discrimination, academic motivation, and gender
. Journal of Adolescence
, 32
(4
), 941
–962
.5.
Allen
, J.
, Pianta
, R.
, Gregory
, A.
, Mikami
, A.
, & Lun
, J.
(2011
). An interaction-based approach to enhancing secondary school instruction and student achievement
. Science
, 333
(6045
), 1034
–1037
.6.
7.
Alvidrez
, J.
, & Weinstein
, R. S.
(1999
). Early teacher perceptions and later student academic achievement
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 91
(4
), 731
–746
.8.
Anderman
, L. H.
(2003
). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle school students’ sense of school belonging
. The Journal of Experimental Education
, 72
(1
), 5
–22
.9.
Anderson
, R. E.
, & Stevenson
, H. C.
(2019
). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families
. American Psychologist
, 74
(1
), 63
–75
.10.
Appel
, M.
, & Kronberger
, N.
(2012
). Stereotypes and the achievement gap: Stereotype threat prior to test taking
. Educational Psychology Review
, 24
(4
), 609
–635
.11.
Aragon
, S. R.
, Poteat
, V. P.
, Espelage
, D. L.
, & Koenig
, B. W.
(2014
). The influence of peer victimization on educational outcomes for LGBTQ and non-LGBTQ high school students
. Journal of LGBT Youth
, 11
(1
), 1
–19
.12.
Araujo
, M. C.
, Carneiro
, P.
, Cruz-Aguayo
, Y.
, & Schady
, N.
(2016
). Teacher quality and learning outcomes in kindergarten
. The Quarterly Journal of Economics
, 131
(3
), 1415
–1453
.13.
Auwarter
, A. E.
, & Aruguete
, M. S.
(2008
). Effects of student gender and socioeconomic status on teacher perceptions
. The Journal of Educational Research
, 101
(4
), 242
–246
.14.
Bahr
, M. W.
, Fuchs
, D.
, Stecker
, P. M.
, & Fuchs
, L. S.
(1991
). Are teachers’ perceptions of difficult-to-teach students racially biased?
. School Psychology Review
, 20
(4
), 599
–608
.15.
Bajaj
, M.
, Ghaffar-Kucher
, A.
, & Desai
, K.
(2016
). Brown bodies and xenophobic bullying in US schools: Critical analysis and strategies for action
. Harvard Educational Review
, 86
(4
), 481
–505
.16.
Bandura
, A.
(1997
). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control
(p. ix604
). W H Freeman/Times Books/Henry Holt & Co
.17.
Benabou
, R.
, & Tirole
, J.
(2003
). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
. Review of Economic Studies
, 70
(3
), 489
–520
.18.
Bhana
, D.
(2012
). Understanding and addressing homophobia in schools: A view from teachers
. South African Journal of Education
, 32
(3
), 307
–318
.19.
Blanton
, R.
, Mason
, T. D.
, & Athow
, B.
(2001
). Colonial style and post-colonial ethnic conflict in Africa
. Journal of Peace Research
, 38
(4
), 473
–491
.20.
Bronfenbrenner
, U.
(1979
). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design
. Harvard University Press
.21.
Brougham
, L.
, & Kashubeck-West
, S.
(2017
). Impact of a growth mindset intervention on academic performance of students at two urban high schools
. Professional School Counseling
, 21
(1
), 2156759X18764934
.22.
Brown
, C. S.
, & Chu
, H.
(2012
). Discrimination, ethnic identity, and academic outcomes of Mexican immigrant children: The importance of school context
. Child Development
, 83
(5
), 1477
–1485
.23.
Bryan
, C.
, Hecht
, C.
, Blazar
, D.
, Draft
, M.
, & Solheim
, O.
(2021
). Global Mindset Initiative. Working Paper 2 (August 262021). Designing an intervention to motivate growth mindset-supportive teaching practices
.24.
Burchinal
, M.
, Kainz
, K.
, & Cai
, Y.
(2011
). How well do our measures of quality predict child outcomes? A meta-analysis and coordinated analysis of data from large-scale studies of early childhood settings
. In Quality Measurement in Early Childhood Settings
(pp. 11
–31
). Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co
.25.
Burnette
, J. L.
, Billingsley
, J.
, Banks
, G. C.
, Knouse
, L. E.
, Hoyt
, C. L.
, Pollack
, J. M.
, & Simon
, S.
(2022
). A systematic review and meta-analysis of growth mindset interventions: For whom, how, and why might such interventions work
. Psychological Bulletin
. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul000036826.
Canning
, E. A.
, Muenks
, K.
, Green
, D. J.
, & Murphy
, M. C.
(2019
). STEM faculty who believe ability is fixed have larger racial achievement gaps and inspire less student motivation in their classes
. Science Advances
, 5
(2
), eaau4734
.27.
Carter
, E. R.
, Onyeador
, I. N.
, & Lewis
, N. A.
(2020
). Developing & delivering effective anti-bias training: Challenges & recommendations
. Behavioral Science & Policy
, 6
(1
), 57
–70
.28.
Casteel
, C. A.
(1998
). Teacher-student interactions and race in integrated classrooms
. The Journal of Educational Research
, 92
(2
), 115
–120
.29.
Chetty
, R.
, Friedman
, J. N.
, & Rockoff
, J. E.
(2014
). Measuring the impacts of teachers I: Evaluating bias in teacher value-added estimates
. American Economic Review
, 104
(9
), 2593
–2632
.30.
Chin
, M. J.
, Quinn
, D. M.
, Dhaliwal
, T. K.
, & Lovison
, V. S.
(2020
). Bias in the air: A nationwide exploration of teacher’s implicit racial attitudes, aggregate bias, and student outcomes
. Educational Researcher
, 49
(8
), 566
–578
.31.
Claro
, S.
, Paunesku
, D.
, & Dweck
, C. S.
(2016
). Growth mindset tempers the effects of poverty on academic achievement
. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
, 113
(31
), 8664
–8668
.32.
Cohen
, D. K.
, Raudenbush
, S. W.
, & Ball
, D. L.
(2003
). Resources, instruction, and research
. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
, 25
(2
), 119
–142
.33.
Cornelius-White
, J.
(2007
). Learner-centered teacher–student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis
. Review of Educational Research
, 77
(1
), 113
–143
.34.
Dee
, T. S.
(2004
). Teachers, race, and student achievement in a randomized experiment
. The Review of Economics and Statistics
, 86
(1
), 195
–210
.35.
Denessen
, E.
, Keller
, A.
, van den Bergh
, L.
, & van den Broek
, P.
(2020
). Do teachers treat their students differently? An observational study on teacher–student interactions as a function of teacher expectations and student achievement
. Education Research International
, 2020
, e2471956
–8
.36.
Dunham
, Y.
, Baron
, A. S.
, & Banaji
, M. R.
(2008
). The development of implicit intergroup cognition
. Trends in Cognitive Sciences
, 12
(7
), 248
–253
.37.
Dupper
, D. R.
, Forrest-Bank
, S.
, & Lowry-Carusillo
, A.
(2015
). Experiences of religious minorities in public school settings: Findings from focus groups involving Muslim, Jewish, Catholic, and Unitarian Universalist youths
. Children & Schools
, 37
(1
), 37
–45
.38.
Dweck
, C. S.
(1999
). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development
(p. xiii, 195
). Psychology Press
.39.
Dweck
, C. S.
, & Yeager
, D.
(2021)
. Global mindset initiative introduction: Envisioning the future of growth mindset research in education
. https://ssrn-com.proxy.library.upenn.edu/abstract=3911564 or http://dx.doi.org.proxy.library.upenn.edu/10.2139/ssrn.391156440.
Dweck
, C. S.
, & Yeager
, D. S.
(2019
). Mindsets: A view from two eras
. Perspectives on Psychological Science
, 14
(3
), 481
–496
.41.
Eccles
, J. S.
, & Roeser
, R. W.
(2011
). Schools as developmental contexts during adolescence
. Journal of Research on Adolescence
, 21
(1
), 225
–241
.42.
Egalite
, A. J.
, Kisida
, B.
, & Winters
, M. A.
(2015
). Representation in the classroom: The effect of own-race teachers on student achievement
. Economics of Education Review
, 45
, 44
–52
.43.
Ehrenberg
, R. G.
, Goldhaber
, D. D.
, & Brewer
, D. J.
(1995
). Do teachers’ race, gender, and ethnicity matter? Evidence from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988
. ILR Review
, 48
(3
), 547
–561
.44.
Emerson
, J.
(2017
). Don’t give up on unconscious bias training—Make it better
. Harvard Business Review
. https://hbr.org/2017/04/dont-give-up-on-unconscious-bias-training-make-it-better45.
Emmer
, E. T.
, & Stough
, L. M.
(2001
). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education
. Educational Psychologist
, 36
(2
), 103
–112
.46.
Engerman
, S. L.
, & Sokoloff
, K. L.
(2005
). Colonialism ,inequality, and long-run paths of development (Working Paper No. 11057; Working Paper Series)
. National Bureau of Economic Research
. https://doi.org/10.3386/w1105747.
Fine
, M.
(1991
). Framing dropouts: Notes on the politics of an urban public high school
(p. xiii, 299
). State University of New York Press
.48.
Fink
, A.
, Cahill
, M. J.
, McDaniel
, M. A.
, Hoffman
, A.
, & Frey
, R. F.
(2018
). Improving general chemistry performance through a growth mindset intervention: Selective effects on underrepresented minorities
. Chemistry Education Research and Practice
, 19
(3
), 783
–806
.49.
Finn
, J. D.
(1989
). Withdrawing from school
. Review of Educational Research
, 59
(2
), 117
–142
.50.
Fredricks
, J. A.
, Blumenfeld
, P. C.
, & Paris
, A. H.
(2004
). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence
. Review of Educational Research
, 74
(1
), 59
–109
.51.
Furrer
, C.
, & Skinner
, E.
(2003
). Sense of relatedness as a factor in children’s academic engagement and performance
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 95
(1
), 148
–162
.52.
Gehlbach
, H.
, Brinkworth
, M.
, King
, A.
, Hsu
, L.
, McIntyre
, J.
, & Rogers
, T.
(2016
). Creating birds of similar feathers: Leveraging similarity to improve teacher-student relationships and academic achievement
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 108
(3
), 342
–352
.53.
Gentrup
, S.
, Lorenz
, G.
, Kristen
, C.
, & Kogan
, I.
(2020
). Self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom: Teacher expectations, teacher feedback and student achievement
. Learning and Instruction
, 66
, 101296
.54.
Gershenson
, S.
, Hart
, C. M. D.
, Hyman
, J.
, Lindsay
, C. A.
, & Papageorge
, N. W.
(2022
). The long-run impacts of same-race teachers
. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
, 14
(4
), 300
–342
.55.
Ghaffar-Kucher
, A.
(2012
). The religification of Pakistani-American youth
. American Educational Research Journal
, 49
(1
), 30
–52
.56.
Gillborn
, D.
(2006
). Rethinking white supremacy: Who Counts in “WhiteWorld.”
. Ethnicities
, 6
(3
), 318
–340
.57.
Gilliam
, W. S.
, Maupin
, A. N.
, Reyes
, C. R.
, Accavitti
, M.
, & Shic
, F.
(2017
) Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions?
(18
). Yale University
. https://www.researchconnections.org/childcare/resources/3260458.
Glock
, S.
, & Klapproth
, F.
(2017
). Bad boys, good girls? Implicit and explicit attitudes toward ethnic minority students among elementary and secondary school teachers
. Studies in Educational Evaluation
, 53
, 77
–86
.59.
Goodenow
, C.
(1993
). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students: Relationships to motivation and achievement
. The Journal of Early Adolescence
, 13
(1
), 21
–43
.60.
Gopnik
, A.
, Meltzoff
, A.
, & Kuhl
, P.
(2001
). The scientist in the crib: Minds, brains and how children learn
. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease—J NERV MENT DIS
, 189
(3
), 195
–196
.61.
Gottfried
, M.
, Kirskey
, J. J.
, & Fletcher
, E.
(2021
). Do high school students with a same-race teacher attend class more often?
. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis
, 44
(1
), 149
–169
.62.
Gregory
, A.
, Allen
, J. P.
, Mikami
, A. Y.
, Hafen
, C. A.
, & Pianta
, R. C.
(2014
). Effects of a professional development program on behavioral engagement of students in middle and high school
. Psychology in the Schools
, 51
(2
), 143
–163
.63.
Hamre
, B. K.
, & Pianta
, R. C.
(2001
). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade
. Child Development
, 72
(2
), 625
–638
.64.
Hamre
, B. K.
, Pianta
, R. C.
, Downer
, J. T.
, DeCoster
, J.
, Mashburn
, A. J.
, Jones
, S. M.
, Brown
, J. L.
, Cappella
, E.
, Atkins
, M.
, Rivers
, S. E.
, Brackett
, M. A.
, & Hamagami
, A.
(2013
). Teaching through Interactions: Testing a developmental framework of teacher effectiveness in over 4,000 classrooms
. The Elementary School Journal
, 113
(4
), 461
–487
.65.
Hanna
, R. N.
, & Linden
, L. L.
(2012
). Discrimination in grading
. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
, 4
(4
), 146
–168
.66.
Harris-Britt
, A.
, Valrie
, C. R.
, Kurtz-Costes
, B.
, & Rowley
, S. J.
(2007
). Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor
. Journal of Research on Adolescence
, 17
(4
), 669
–682
.67.
Hecker
, T.
, Dumke
, L.
, Neuner
, F.
, & Masath
, F. B.
(2021
). Mental health problems moderate the association between teacher violence and children’s social status in East Africa: A multi-informant study combining self- and peer-reports
. Development and Psychopathology
, 1–10
(4
), 1329
–1338
.68.
Henrich
, J.
, Heine
, S. J.
, & Norenzayan
, A.
(2010
). The weirdest people in the world
. Behavioral and Brain Sciences
, 33
(2–3
), 61
–83
.69.
Hewstone
, M.
, Rubin
, M.
, & Willis
, H.
(2002
). Intergroup bias
. Annual Review of Psychology
, 53
, 575
–604
.70.
Hoffman
, M.
, Richmond
, J.
, Morrow
, J.
, & Salomone
, K.
(2002
). Investigating “sense of belonging” in first-year college students
. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice
, 4
(3
), 227
–256
.71.
Hong
, Y. Y.
, Coleman
, J.
, Chan
, G.
, Wong
, R. Y. M.
, Chiu
, C.
, Hansen
, I. G.
, Lee
, S. L.
, Tong
, Y. Y.
, & Fu
, H. Y.
(2004
). Predicting intergroup bias: The interactive effects of implicit theory and social identity
. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
, 30
(8
), 1035
–1047
.72.
Howard
, J. L.
, Gagné
, M.
, & Bureau
, J. S.
(2017
). Testing a continuum structure of self-determined motivation: A meta-analysis
. Psychological Bulletin
, 143
(12
), 1346
–1377
.73.
Howe
, C.
, & Abedin
, M.
(2013
). Classroom dialogue: A systematic review across four decades of research
. Cambridge Journal of Education
, 43
(3
), 325
–356
.74.
Hughes
, D.
, Rodriguez
, J.
, Smith
, E. P.
, Johnson
, D. J.
, Stevenson
, H. C.
, & Spicer
, P.
(2006
). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study
. Developmental Psychology
, 42
(5
), 747
–770
.75.
Hughes
, J. N.
, & Kwok
, O.
(2006
). Classroom engagement mediates the effect of teacher-student support on elementary students’ peer acceptance: A prospective analysis
. Journal of School Psychology
, 43
(6
), 465
–480
.76.
Human Rights Watch
(2022
). #OUTLAWED: “The love that dare not speak its name.”
https://features.hrw.org/features/features/lgbt_laws77.
Hurtado
, S.
, & Carter
, D. F.
(1997
). Effects of college transition and perceptions of the campus racial climate on latino college students’ sense of belonging
. Sociology of Education
, 70
(4
), 324
–345
.78.
Johnson
, D. R.
(2012
). Campus racial climate perceptions and overall sense of belonging among racially diverse women in STEM majors
. Journal of College Student Development
, 53
(2
), 336
–346
.79.
Johnson
, D. R.
, Soldner
, M.
, Leonard
, J. B.
, Alvarez
, P.
, Inkelas
, K. K.
, Rowan-Kenyon
, H. T.
, & Longerbeam
, S. D.
(2007
). Examining sense of belonging among first-year undergraduates from different racial/ethnic groups
. Journal of College Student Development
, 48
(5
), 525
–542
.80.
Jussim
, L.
, & Harber
, K. D.
(2005
). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies
. Personality and Social Psychology Review
, 9
(2
), 131
–155
.81.
Kincade
, L.
, Cook
, C.
, & Goerdt
, A.
(2020
). Meta-analysis and common practice elements of universal approaches to improving student–teacher relationships
. Review of Educational Research
, 90
(5
), 710
–748
.82.
Kosciw
, J. G.
, Clark
, C. M.
, Truong
, N. L.
, & Zongrone
, A. D.
(2020
). The 2019 National School Climate Survey: The experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and Queer Youth in our nation’s schools
. Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network. (GLSEN)
. https://www.glsen.org/sites/default/files/2020-10/NSCS-2019-Full-Report_0.pdf83.
Kosciw
, J. G.
, Palmer
, N. A.
, Kull
, R. M.
, & Greytak
, E. A.
(2013
). The effect of negative school climate on academic outcomes for LGBT youth and the role of in-school supports
. Journal of School Violence
, 12
(1
), 45
–63
.84.
Kozulin
, A.
(1998
). Psychological tools: A sociocultural approach to education. Harvard
. University Press
.85.
Kroeper
, K. M.
, Fried
, A. C.
, & Murphy
, M. C.
(2022
). Towards fostering growth mindset classrooms: Identifying teaching behaviors that signal instructors’ fixed and growth mindsets beliefs to students
. Social Psychology of Education
, 25
(2
), 371
–398
.86.
LaCosse
, J.
, Murphy
, M. C.
, Garcia
, J. A.
, & Zirkel
, S.
(2021
). The role of STEM professors’ mindset beliefs on students’ anticipated psychological experiences and course interest
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 113
(5
), 949
–971
.87.
Lan
, X.
, & Moscardino
, U.
(2019
). Direct and interactive effects of perceived teacher-student relationship and grit on student wellbeing among stay-behind early adolescents in urban China
. Learning and Individual Differences
, 69
, 129
–137
.88.
Lavy
, V.
, & Sand
, E.
(2018
). On the origins of gender gaps in human capital: Short- and long-term consequences of teachers’ biases
. Journal of Public Economics
, 167
, 263
–279
.89.
Lazarides
, R.
, & Watt
, H. M. G.
(2015
). Girls’ and boys’ perceived mathematics teacher beliefs, classroom learning environments and mathematical career intentions
. Contemporary Educational Psychology
, 41
, 51
–61
.90.
Lee
, J.
, Rhee
, D. E.
, & Rudolf
, R.
(2019
). Teacher gender, student gender, and primary school achievement: Evidence from ten Francophone African countries
. The Journal of Development Studies
, 55
(4
), 661
–679
.91.
Lee
, V. E.
, Marks
, H. M.
, & Byrd
, T.
(1994
). Sexism in single-sex and coeducational independent secondary school classrooms
. Sociology of Education
, 67
(2
), 92
–120
.92.
Levy
, S. R.
, & Dweck
, C. S.
(1999
). The impact of children’s static versus dynamic conceptions of people on stereotype formation
. Child Development
, 70
(5
), 1163
–1180
.93.
Levy
, S. R.
, Stroessner
, S. J.
, & Dweck
, C. S.
(1998
). Stereotype formation and endorsement: The role of implicit theories
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 74
(6
), 1421
–1436
.94.
Lin
, M.
, Lake
, V.
, & Rice
, D.
(2008
). Teaching anti-bias curriculum in teacher preparation programs: What and How?
. Teacher Education Quarterly
.95.
Logel
, C.
, Walton
, G.
, Iserman
, E.
, von Hippel
, W.
, & Bell
, A.
(2009
). Interacting with sexist men triggers social identity threat among female engineers
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 96
(6
), 1089
–1103
.96.
Lou
, N. M.
, & Noels
, K. A.
(2020
). Does my teacher believe I can improve?”: The role of meta-lay theories in ESL learners’ mindsets and need satisfaction
. Frontiers in Psychology
, 11
, 1417
.97.
Margolis
, H.
, & Mccabe
, P. P.
(2006
). Improving self-efficacy and motivation: What to do, what to say
. Intervention in School and Clinic
, 41
(4
), 218
–227
.98.
Marsh
, H. W.
, & Craven
, R. G.
(2006
). Reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance from a multidimensional perspective: Beyond seductive pleasure and unidimensional perspectives
. Perspectives on Psychological Science
, 1
(2
), 133
–163
.99.
Martin
, D. P.
, & Rimm-Kaufman
, S. E.
(2015
). Do student self-efficacy and teacher–student interaction quality contribute to emotional and social engagement in fifth grade math?
. Journal of School Psychology
, 53
(5
), 359
–373
.100.
McCoy
, D.
, & Wolf
, S.
(2018
). Changes in classroom quality predict ghanaian preschoolers’ gains in academic and social-emotional skills
. Developmental Psychology
, 54
(8
), 1582
–1599
.101.
McKown
, C.
, & Weinstein
, R. S.
(2008
). Teacher expectations, classroom context, and the achievement gap
. Journal of School Psychology
, 46
(3
), 235
–261
.102.
Meece
, J. L.
, Anderman
, E. M.
, & Anderman
, L. H.
(2006
). Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and academic achievement
. Annual Review of Psychology
, 57
, 487
–503
.103.
Meehan
, B. T.
, Hughes
, J. N.
, & Cavell
, T. A.
(2003
). Teacher–student relationships as compensatory resources for aggressive children
. Child Development
, 74
(4
), 1145
–1157
.104.
Meeuwisse
, M.
, Severiens
, S. E.
, & Born
, M. P.
(2010
). Learning environment, interaction, sense of belonging and study success in ethnically diverse student groups
. Research in Higher Education
, 51
(6
), 528
–545
.105.
Midgley
, C.
, Kaplan
, A.
, Middleton
, M.
, Maehr
, M. L.
, Urdan
, T.
, Anderman
, L. H.
, Anderman
, E.
, & Roeser
, R.
(1998
). The development and validation of scales assessing students’ achievement goal orientations
. Contemporary Educational Psychology
, 23
(2
), 113
–131
.106.
Monroe
, C. R.
(2005
). Why are “bad boys” always Black? Causes of disproportionality in school discipline and recommendations for change
. The Clearing House
, 79
(1
), 45
–50
.107.
Morris
, M.
(2016
). Pushout: The criminalization of Black girls in schools
. The New Press
.108.
Morrow
, J.
, & Ackermann
, M.
(2012
). Intention to persist and retention of first-year students: The importance of motivation and sense of belonging
. College Student Journal
, 46
(3
), 483
–491
.109.
Muenks
, K.
, Canning
, E. A.
, LaCosse
, J.
, Green
, D. J.
, Zirkel
, S.
, Garcia
, J. A.
, & Murphy
, M. C.
(2020
). Does my professor think my ability can change? Students’ perceptions of their STEM professors’ mindset beliefs predict their psychological vulnerability, engagement, and performance in class
. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 149
(11
), 2119
–2144
.110.
Muenks
, K.
, Yan
, V. X.
, Woodward
, N. R.
, & Frey
, S. E.
(2021
). Elaborative learning practices are associated with perceived faculty growth mindset in undergraduate science classrooms
. Learning and Individual Differences
, 92
, 102088
.111.
Murdock
, T. B.
(1999
). The social context of risk: Status and motivational predictors of alienation in middle school
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 91
(1
), 62
–75
.112.
Murdock
, T. B.
, Anderman
, L. H.
, & Hodge
, S. A.
(2000
). Middle-grade predictors of students’ motivation and behavior in high school
. Journal of Adolescent Research
, 15
(3
), 327
–351
.113.
Murdock
, T. B.
, & Miller
, A.
(2003
). Teachers as sources of middle school students’ motivational identity: Variable-centered and person-centered analytic approaches
. The Elementary School Journal
, 103
(4
), 383
–399
.114.
Murphy
, M.
, Fryberg
, S.
, Brady
, L.
, Canning
, E.
, & Hecht
, C.
(2021
). Global Mindset Initiative paper 1: Growth mindset cultures and teacher practices (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 3911594)
. Social Science Research Network
. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3911594115.
Nagel
, J.
(1994
). Constructing ethnicity: Creating and recreating ethnic identity and culture
. Social Problems
, 41
(1
), 152
–176
.116.
National Center for Educational Statistics
. (2019a
). The great divergence: Growing disparities between the nation’s highest and lowest achievers in NAEP mathematics and reading between 2009 and 2019
. NAEPPLUS+: The Official Blog of the Nation’s Report Card
. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/blog/mathematics_reading_2019.aspx117.
National Center for Education Statistics
. (2019b
). The nation’s report card
. US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences
. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/118.
National Center for Education Statistics
. (2022
). The nation’s report card
. US Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences
. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/119.
National Center on Education and the Economy (NCEE)
(2020
). The widening achievement gap in the U.S
. http://ncee.org/2020/11/the-widening-achievement-gap-in-the-u-s/120.
Niyozov
, S.
, & Pluim
, G.
(2009
). Teachers’ perspectives on the education of Muslim students: A missing voice in Muslim education research
. Curriculum Inquiry
, 39
(5
), 637
–677
.121.
Nuñez
, A. M.
(2009
). A critical paradox? Predictors of Latino students’ sense of belonging in college
. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education
, 2
(1
), 46
–61
.122.
O’Connor
, E.
, & McCartney
, K.
(2007
). Examining teacher–child relationships and achievement as part of an ecological model of development
. American Educational Research Journal
, 44
(2
), 340
–369
.123.
Okanlawon
, K.
(2021
). Homophobia in Nigerian schools and universities: Victimization, mental health issues, resilience of the LGBT students and support from straight allies. A Literature review
. Journal of LGBT Youth
, 18
(4
), 327
–359
.124.
O’Keeffe
, P.
(2013
). A Sense of belonging: Improving student retention
. College Student Journal
, 47
(4
), 605
–613
.125.
Oyserman
, D.
, Brickman
, D.
, Bybee
, D.
, & Celious
, A.
(2006
). Fitting in matters: Markers of in-group belonging and academic outcomes
. Psychological Science
, 17
(10
), 854
–861
.126.
Pekrun
, R.
, Goetz
, T.
, Titz
, W.
, & Perry
, R. P.
(2002
). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research
. Educational Psychologist
, 37
(2
), 91
–105
.127.
Petegem
, K.
, Aelterman
, A.
, Rosseel
, Y.
, & Creemers
, B.
(2007
). Student perception as moderator for student wellbeing
. Social Indicators Research
, 83
(3
), 447
–463
.128.
Pianta
, R. C.
, Belsky
, J.
, Vandergrift
, N.
, Houts
, R.
, & Morrison
, F. J.
(2008
). Classroom effects on children’s achievement trajectories in elementary school
. American Educational Research Journal
, 45
(2
), 365
–397
.129.
Pianta
, R. C.
, & Hamre
, B. K.
(2009
). Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement of classroom processes: Standardized observation can leverage capacity
. Educational Researcher
, 38
(2
), 109
–119
.130.
Plaks
, J. E.
, Levy
, S. R.
, & Dweck
, C. S.
(2009
). Lay theories of personality: Cornerstones of meaning in social cognition
. Social and Personality Psychology Compass
, 3
(6
), 1069
–1081
.131.
Plaks
, J. E.
, Stroessner
, S. J.
, Dweck
, C. S.
, & Sherman
, J. W.
(2001
). Person theories and attention allocation: Preferences for stereotypic versus counterstereotypic information
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 80
(6
), 876
–893
.132.
Poteat
, V. P.
, Yoshikawa
, H.
, Marx
, R. A.
, Sherwood
, S. H.
, Richburg
, A.
, Murchison
, G. R.
, Lipkin
, A.
, Yang
, M. K.
, & Calzo
, J. P.
(2022
). Engagement in gender-sexuality alliances predicts youth’s positive and negative affect: An 8-week weekly diary study
. Journal of Youth and Adolescence
, 52
(1
), 1
–14
.133.
Quarshie
, E. N. B.
, Waterman
, M. G.
, & House
, A. O.
(2020
). Prevalence of self-harm among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adolescents: A comparison of personal and social adversity with a heterosexual sample in Ghana
. BMC Research Notes
, 13
(1
), 271
.134.
Rattan
, A.
, & Georgeac
, O.
(2017
). Mindsets about malleability and intergroup relations
. In: C. M.
Zedelius
, B. C. N.
Müller
, & J. W.
Schooler
(Eds.), The science of lay theories: How beliefs shape our cognition, behavior, and health
(pp. 127
–156
). Springer International Publishing AG
. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57306-9_6135.
Rattan
, A.
, Good
, C.
, & Dweck
, C. S.
(2012
). “it’s OK — not everyone can be good at math”: Instructors with an entity theory comfort (and demotivate) students
. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology
, 48
(3
), 731
–737
.136.
Rattan
, A.
, Savani
, K.
, Komarraju
, M.
, Morrison
, M. M.
, Boggs
, C.
, & Ambady
, N.
(2018
). Meta-lay theories of scientific potential drive underrepresented students’ sense of belonging to Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 115
(1
), 54
–75
.137.
Rawal
, S.
, & Kingdon
, G.
(2010
). Akin to my teacher: Does caste, religious or gender distance between student and teacher matter? Some evidence from India
. In: DoQSS Working Papers (No. 10–18; DoQSS Working Papers)
. Quantitative Social Science - UCL Social Research Institute, University College London
. https://ideas.repec.org/p/qss/dqsswp/1018.html138.
Redding
, C.
(2019
). A teacher like me: A review of the effect of student–teacher racial/ethnic matching on teacher perceptions of students and student academic and behavioral outcomes
. Review of Educational Research
, 89
(4
), 499
–535
.139.
Riegle-Crumb
, C.
, & Humphries
, M.
(2012
). Exploring bias in math teachers’ perceptions of students’ ability by gender and race/ethnicity
. Gender & Society
, 26
(2
), 290
–322
.140.
Rivkin
, S. G.
, Hanushek
, E. A.
, & Kain
, J. F.
(2005
). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement
. Econometrica
, 73
(2
), 417
–458
.141.
Robinson
, J. P.
, & Espelage
, D. L.
(2011
). Inequities in educational and psychological outcomes between LGBTQ and straight students in middle and high school
. Educational Researcher
, 40
(7
), 315
–330
.142.
Rosenthal
, R.
, & Jacobson
, L.
(1968
). Pygmalion in the classroom
. The Urban Review
, 3
(1
), 16
–20
.143.
Rothstein
, R.
(2017
). The Color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America
. Liveright Publishing
.144.
Ryan
, R. M.
, & Deci
, E. L.
(2000
). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being
. American Psychologist
, 55
(1
), 68
–78
.145.
Sabarwal
, S.
, Abu-Jawdeh
, M.
, & Kapoor
, R.
(2022
). Teacher beliefs: Why they matter and what they are
. The World Bank Research Observer
, 37
(1
), 73
–106
.146.
Sadker
, M.
, & Sadker
, D.
(2010
). Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls
. Simon and Schuster
.147.
Sánchez
, B.
, Colón
, Y.
, & Esparza
, P.
(2005
). The role of sense of school belonging and gender in the academic adjustment of Latino adolescents
. Journal of Youth and Adolescence
, 34
(6
), 619
–628
.148.
Sansone
, D.
(2017
). Why does teacher gender matter?
. Economics of Education Review
, 61
(C
), 9
–18
.149.
Scherer
, E.
, Cleveland
, C.
, & Ivester
, R.
(2021
, September 28). The effects of teacher-student demographic matching on social-emotional learningSREE 2021 Conference
. https://sree.confex.com/sree/2021/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/3496150.
Schunk
, D. H.
, & Mullen
, C. A.
(2012
). Self-efficacy as an engaged learner
. In Handbook of Research on Student Engagement
(pp. 219
–235
). Springer Science + Business Media
. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_10151.
Schunk
, D. H.
, & Zimmerman
, B. J.
(2013
). Self-regulation and learning
. In W. M.
Reynolds
, G. E.
Miller
, & I. B.
Weiner
(Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Educational psychology
(pp. 45
–68
). John Wiley & Sons, Inc
.152.
Seidman
, E.
, & Tseng
, V.
(2010
). Changing social settings: A framework for action
. Empowering settings and voices for social change
(pp. 12
–37
). http://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195380576153.
Sentse
, M.
, Dijkstra
, J. K.
, Salmivalli
, C.
, & Cillessen
, A. H. N.
(2013
). The dynamics of friendships and victimization in adolescence: A longitudinal social network perspective
. Aggressive Behavior
, 39
(3
), 229
–238
.154.
Shim
, J. M.
(2018
). Working through resistance to resistance in anti-racist teacher education
. Journal of Philosophy of Education
, 52
(2
), 262
–283
.155.
Siegle
, D.
, & McCoach
, D. B.
(2007
). Increasing student mathematics self-efficacy through teacher training
. Journal of Advanced Academics
, 18
(2
), 278
–312
.156.
Silverstein
, P. A.
(2005
). Immigrant racialization and the new savage slot: Race, migration, and immigration in the new Europe
. Annual Review of Anthropology
, 34
(1
), 363
–384
.157.
Singh
, K.
, Granville
, M.
, & Dika
, S.
(2002
). Mathematics and science achievement: Effects of motivation, interest, and academic engagement
. The Journal of Educational Research
, 95
(6
), 323
–332
.158.
Skiba
, R.
, Horner
, R.
, Chung
, C.-G.
, Rausch
, M.
, May
, S.
, & Tobin
, T.
(2011
). Race is not neutral: A national investigation of African American and Latino disproportionality in school discipline
. School Psychology Review
, 40
(1
), 85
–107
.159.
Spilt
, J.
, Hughes
, J.
, Wu
, J.
, & Kwok
, O. M.
(2012
). Dynamics of teacher–student relationships: Stability and change across elementary school and the influence on children’s academic success
. Child Development
, 83
(4
), 1180
–1195
.160.
Staats
, C.
(2016
). Understanding implicit bias: What educators should know
. American Educator
, 39
(4
), 29
.161.
Steele
, C. M.
, & Aronson
, J.
(1995
). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans
. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
, 69
(5
), 797
–811
.162.
Stigler
, J. W.
, Gallimore
, R.
, & Hiebert
, J.
(2000
). Using video surveys to compare classrooms and teaching across cultures: Examples and lessons from the TIMSS video studies
. Educational Psychologist
, 35
(2
), 87
–100
.163.
Strati
, A. D.
, Schmidt
, J. A.
, & Maier
, K. S.
(2017
). Perceived challenge, teacher support, and teacher obstruction as predictors of student engagement
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 109
(1
), 131
–147
.164.
Taylor
, V. J.
, & Walton
, G. M.
(2011
). Stereotype threat undermines academic learning
. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
, 37
(8
), 1055
–1067
.165.
Tenenbaum
, H. R.
, & Ruck
, M. D.
(2007
). Are teachers’ expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A meta-analysis
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 99
(2
), 253
–273
.166.
Thoreson
, R.
(2016
). Like walking through a hailstorm.” Human Rights Watch
. https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/12/08/walking-through-hailstorm/discrimination-against-lgbt-youth-us-schools167.
Tiedemann
, J.
(2002
). Teachers’ gender stereotypes as determinants of teacher perceptions in elementary school mathematics
. Educational Studies in Mathematics
, 50
(1
), 49
–62
.168.
Tseng
, V.
, & Seidman
, E.
(2007
). A systems framework for understanding social settings
. American Journal of Community Psychology
, 39
(3
), 217
–228
.169.
Tuwor
, T.
, & Sossou
, M. A.
(2008
). Gender discrimination and education in West Africa: Strategies for maintaining girls in school
. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110601183115170.
Vaught
, S. E.
, & Castagno
, A. E.
(2008
). “I don’t think I’m a racist”: Critical Race Theory, teacher attitudes, and structural racism
. Race Ethnicity and Education
, 11
(2
), 95
–113
.171.
172.
Warren
, S.
(2002
). Stories from the classrooms: How expectations and efficacy of diverse teachers affect the academic performance of children in poor urban schools
. Educational Horizons
, 80
, 109
–116
.173.
Wayman
, J. C.
(2002
). Student perceptions of teacher ethnic bias: A comparison of Mexican American and non-Latino White dropouts and students
. The High School Journal
, 85
(3
), 27
–37
.174.
Wehlage
, G. G.
, & Others
, A.
(1989
). Reducing the risk: schools as communities of support
. The Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis Inc
.175.
Wehmeyer
, M. L.
, & Schwartz
, M.
(2001
). Disproportionate representation of males in special education services: Biology, behavior, or bias?
. Education and Treatment of Children
, 24
(1
), 28
–45
.176.
Wentzel
, K. R.
(1997
). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived pedagogical caring
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 89
(3
), 411
–419
.177.
West
, R. F.
, Toplak
, M. E.
, & Stanovich
, K. E.
(2008
). Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions
. Journal of Educational Psychology
, 100
(4
), 930
–941
.178.
Whitford
, D. K.
, & Emerson
, A. M.
(2019
). Empathy intervention to reduce implicit bias in pre-service teachers
. Psychological Reports
, 122
(2
), 670
–688
.179.
Wiese
, H.
, Mayr
, K.
, Krämer
, P.
, Seeger
, P.
, Müller
, H.-G.
, & Mezger
, V.
(2017
). Changing teachers’ attitudes towards linguistic diversity: Effects of an anti-bias programme
. International Journal of Applied Linguistics
, 27
(1
), 198
–220
.180.
Wigfield
, A.
, & Eccles
, J. S.
(2000
). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation
. Contemporary Educational Psychology
, 25
(1
), 68
–81
.181.
Wilkerson
, I.
(2020
). Caste: The origins of our discontents
. Random House Publishing Group
.182.
Yates
, G. C. R.
, & Yates
, S. M.
(1990
). Teacher effectiveness research: Towards describing user-friendly classroom instruction
. Educational Psychology
, 10
(3
), 225
–238
.183.
Yeager
, D.
, Carroll
, J.
, Buontempo
, J.
, Cimpian
, A.
, Woody
, S.
, Crosnoe
, R.
, Muller
, C.
, Murray
, J.
, Mhatre
, P.
, Kersting
, N.
, Hulleman
, C.
, Kudym
, M.
, Murphy
, M.
, Duckworth
, A.
, Walton
, G.
, & Dweck
, C.
(2021
). Teacher mindsets help explain where a growth-mindset intervention does and doesn’t work
. Psychological Science
, 33
(1
), 18
–32
.184.
Yeager
, D. S.
, & Dweck
, C. S.
(2020
). What can be learned from growth mindset controversies?
. American Psychologist
, 75
(9
), 1269
–1284
.185.
Yeager
, D. S.
, Hanselman
, P.
, Walton
, G. M.
, Murray
, J. S.
, Crosnoe
, R.
, Muller
, C.
, Tipton
, E.
, Schneider
, B.
, Hulleman
, C. S.
, Hinojosa
, C. P.
, Paunesku
, D.
, Romero
, C.
, Flint
, K.
, Roberts
, A.
, Trott
, J.
, Iachan
, R.
, Buontempo
, J.
, Yang
, S. M.
, Carvalho
, C. M.
, Dweck
, C. S.
(2019
). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement
. Nature
, 573
(7774
), 364
–369
.186.
Zea
, M. C.
, Reisen
, C. A.
, Beil
, C.
, & Caplan
, R. D.
(1997
). Predicting intention to remain in college among ethnic minority and nonminority students
. The Journal of Social Psychology
, 137
(2
), 149
–160
.187.
Zeiders
, K. H.
, Umaña-Taylor
, A. J.
, Carbajal
, S.
, & Pech
, A.
(2021
). Police discrimination among Black, Latina/x/o, and White adolescents: Examining frequency and relations to academic functioning
. Journal of Adolescence
, 90
, 91
–99
.188.
Zimmerman
, B. J
(2000
). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to earn
. Contemporary Educational Psychology
, 25
(1
), 82
–91
.© 2023 S. Karger AG, Basel
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
2023
You do not currently have access to this content.
