Background: Social network has been identified as a protective factor for cognitive impairment. However, the relationship between social network and global and subdomains of cognitive function remains unclear. Objective: This study aims to provide an analytic framework to examine quantity, composition, and quality of social network and investigate the association between social network, global cognition, and cognitive domains among US Chinese older adults. Methods: Data were derived from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly (PINE), a community-engaged, population-based epidemiological study of US Chinese older adults aged 60 and above in the greater Chicago area, with a sample size of 3,157. Social network was assessed by network size, volume of contact, proportion kin, proportion female, proportion co-resident, and emotional closeness. Cognitive function was evaluated by global cognition, episodic memory, executive function, working memory, and Chinese Mini-Mental State Examination (C-MMSE). Linear regression and quantile regression were performed. Results: Every 1-point increase in network size (b = 0.048, p < 0.001) and volume of contact (b = 0.049, p < 0.01) and every 1-point decrease in proportion kin (b = -0.240, p < 0.01) and proportion co-resident (b = -0.099, p < 0.05) were associated with higher level of global cognition. Similar trends were observed in specific cognitive domains, including episodic memory, working memory, executive function, and C-MMSE. However, emotional closeness was only significantly associated with C-MMSE (b = 0.076, p < 0.01). Social network has differential effects on female versus male older adults. Conclusion: This study found that social network dimensions have different relationships with global and domains of cognitive function. Quantitative and structural aspects of social network were essential to maintain an optimal level of cognitive function. Qualitative aspects of social network were protective factors for C-MMSE. It is necessary for public health practitioners to consider interventions that enhance different aspects of older adults' social network.

Keywords:
Social network, Cognitive function, Episodic memory, Executive function, Working memory, Mini-Mental State Examination, Older adults, Chinese
1.
Glisky EL: Changes in cognitive function in human aging; in Riddle DR (ed): Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms. Boca Raton, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, 2007, pp 3-20.
2.
Tulving E: Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53:1-25.
3.
Tulving E: Elements of Episodic Memory. Oxford, Clarendon, 1983.
4.
Raz N: Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance: Integration of structural and functional findings; in Craik FIM, Salthouse TA (eds): The Handbook of Aging and Cognition. Mahwah, Erlbaum, 2000, pp 1-90.
5.
Conway ARA, Engle RW: Working memory and retrieval: a resource-dependent inhibition model. J Exp Psychol Gen 1994;123:354.
6.
Baddeley A: Working memory: theories, models, and controversies. Annu Rev Psychol 2012;63:1-29.
7.
Baddeley AD, Hitch G: Working memory; in Bower GA (ed): Recent Advances in Learning and Motivation. New York, Academic Press, 1974, pp 47-89.
8.
Baddeley A: The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends Cogn Sci 2000;4:417-423.
9.
Ybarra O, Burnstein E, Winkielman P, Keller MC, Manis M, Chan E, et al: Mental exercising through simple socializing: social interaction promotes general cognitive functioning. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2008;34:248-259.
10.
Shallice T: From Neuropsychology to Mental Structure. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
11.
Smith EE, Jonides J: Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science 1999;283:1657-1661.
12.
Ertel KA, Glymour MM, Berkman LF: Effects of social integration on preserving memory function in a nationally representative US elderly population. Am J Public Health 2008;98:1215-1220.
13.
Fratiglioni L, Paillard-Borg S, Winblad B: An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. Lancet Neurol 2004;3:343-353.
14.
Helmer C, Damon D, Letenneur L, Fabrigoule C, Barberger-Gateau P, Lafont S, et al: Marital status and risk of Alzheimer's disease. A French population-based cohort study. Neurology 1999;53:1953-1958.
15.
Fratiglioni L, Hui-Xin W, Ericsson K, Maytan M, Winblad B: Influence of social network on occurrence of dementia: a community-based longitudinal study. Lancet 2000;355:1315.
16.
Berkman LF, Glass T, Brissette I, Seeman TE: From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Soc Sci Med 2000;51:843-857.
17.
Holtzman RE, Rebok GW, Saczynski JS, Kouzis AC, Wilcox Doyle K, Eaton WW: Social network characteristics and cognition in middle-aged and older adults. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2004;59:P278-P284.
18.
Hughes TF, Andel R, Small BJ, Borenstein AR, Mortimer JA: The association between social resources and cognitive change in older adults: evidence from the Charlotte County Healthy Aging Study. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2008;63:P241-P244.
19.
Giles LC, Anstey KJ, Walker RB, Luszcz MA: Social networks and memory over 15 years of followup in a cohort of older Australians: results from the Australian Longitudinal Study of Ageing. J Aging Res 2012;2012:856048.
20.
Schooler C: Psychological effects of complex environments during the life span: A review and theory; in Schooler C, Schale KW (eds): Cognitive Functioning and Social Structure over the Life Course. Ablex, Norwood, 1987, pp 24-49.
21.
Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Small BJ, Dixon RA: Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychol Aging 1999;14:245.
22.
Ellwardt L, Van Tilburg TG, Aartsen MJ: The mix matters: complex personal networks relate to higher cognitive functioning in old age. Soc Sci Med 2015;125:107-115.
23.
Kramer AF, Bherer L, Colcombe SJ, Dong W, Greenough WT: Environmental influences on cognitive and brain plasticity during aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2004;59:M940-M957.
24.
Hurtado-de-Mendoza A, Gonzales FA, Serrano A, Kaltman S: Social isolation and perceived barriers to establishing social networks among Latina immigrants. Am J Commun Psychol 2014;53:73-82.
25.
Viruell-Fuentes EA, Schulz AJ: Toward a dynamic conceptualization of social ties and context: implications for understanding immigrant and Latino health. Am J Public Health 2009;99:2167-2175.
26.
Smyth N, Siriwardhana C, Hotopf M, Hatch SL: Social networks, social support and psychiatric symptoms: social determinants and associations within a multicultural community population. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2015;50:1111-1120.
27.
Dong X, Chang ES: Social networks among the older Chinese population in the USA: findings from the PINE study. Gerontology 2017;63:238-252.
28.
Dong X, Wong E, Simon MA: Study design and implementation of the PINE study. J Aging Health 2014;26:1085-1099.
29.
Dong X, Chang ES, Wong E, Simon M: Working with culture: lessons learned from a community-engaged project in a Chinese aging population. Aging Health 2011;7:529-537.
30.
Dong X, Li Y, Chen R, Chang ES, Simon M: Evaluation of community health education workshops among Chinese older adults in Chicago: a community-based participatory research approach. J Educ Train Stud 2013;1:170-181.
31.
Dong X: The Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago. Los Angeles, Sage Publications, 2014.
32.
Simon MA, Chang ES, Rajan KB, Welch MJ, Dong X: Demographic characteristics of US Chinese older adults in the greater Chicago area: assessing the representativeness of the PINE study. J Aging Health 2014;26:1100-1115.
33.
Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR: “Mini-mental state”: a practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 1975;12:189-198.
34.
Albert M, Smith LA, Scherr PA, Taylor JO, Evans DA, Funkenstein HH: Use of brief cognitive tests to identify individuals in the community with clinically diagnosed Alzheimer's disease. Int J Neurosci 1991;57:167-178.
35.
Smith A: Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) Manual (revised). Los Angeles, Western Psychological Services, 1982.
36.
Wechsler D: WMS-R: Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. New York, Psychological Corporation, 1987.
37.
Dong X, Chen R, Wu B, Zhang NJ, et al: Association between elder mistreatment and suicidal ideation among community-dwelling Chinese older adults in the USA. Gerontology 2016;62:71-80.
38.
Simon MA, Chen R, Chang ES, Dong X: The association between filial piety and suicidal ideation: findings from a community-dwelling Chinese aging population. J Gerontol A Biomed Sci Med Sci 2014;69(suppl 2):S90-S97.
39.
Dong X, Chen R, Simon MA: The prevalence of medical conditions among US Chinese community-dwelling older adults. J Gerontol A Biomed Sci Med Sci 2014;69(suppl 2):S15-S22.
40.
LI M, Dong X: Association between both self-reported and directly observed physical function and depressive symptoms in a US Chinese population: findings from the PINE study. SOJ Psychol 2017;4:1-8.
41.
Dong X: Addressing Health and Well-Being of US Chinese Older Adults through Community-Based Participatory Research: Introduction to the PINE Study. New York, Oxford University Press, 2014.
42.
Green AF, Rebok G, Lyketsos CG: Influence of social network characteristics on cognition and functional status with aging. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2008;23:972-978.
43.
Krueger KR, Wilson RS, Kamenetsky JM, Barnes LL, Bienias JL, Bennett DA: Social engagement and cognitive function in old age. Exp Aging Res 2009;35:45-60.
44.
Wicker B, Keysers C, Plailly J, Royet J-P, Gallese V, Rizzolatti G: Both of us disgusted in My insula: the common neural basis of seeing and feeling disgust. Neuron 2003;40:655-664.
45.
Amieva H, Stoykova R, Matharan F, Helmer C, Antonucci TC, Dartigues J-F: What aspects of social network are protective for dementia? Not the quantity but the quality of social interactions is protective up to 15 years later. Psychosom Med 2010;72:905-911.
46.
Antonucci TC, Ajrouch KJ, Birditt KS: The convoy model: explaining social relations from a multidisciplinary perspective. Gerontologist 2013;54:82-92.
47.
Rook KS: The negative side of social interaction: impact on psychological well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol 1984;46:1097.
48.
Laditka JN, Laditka SB, Liu R, Price AE, Wu B, Friedman DB, et al: Older adults' concerns about cognitive health: commonalities and differences among six United States ethnic groups. Ageing Soc 2011;31:1202-1228.
49.
Liu D, Hinton L, Tran C, Hinton D, Barker JC: Reexamining the relationships among dementia, stigma, and aging in immigrant Chinese and Vietnamese family caregivers. J Cross Cult Gerontol 2008;23:283-299.
50.
Prochaska JO, Velicer WF: The transtheoretical model of health behavior change. Am J Health Promot 1997;12:38-48.
© 2017 S. Karger AG, Basel
2017
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.