We studied the behavioral ecology of provisioned long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Padang, West Sumatra, Indonesia, to examine how temporal changes in food provisioning within a day affect macaque activity. We conducted a field survey from October 2015 to January 2016 at two different sites: Gunung Meru (GM) and Gunung Padang (GP), where macaques receive high and low provisioning, respectively. The time budgets of macaques significantly differed between study groups. At GM, macaques spent more time resting, feeding, acting out agonistic behaviors, and less time moving and searching for food, than the macaques at GP. Diurnal activity patterns significantly changed within a day. The short-term change in activity of the macaques was closely related to the number of tourists: they spent a greater time feeding and searching when more tourists came to feed the monkeys, while time for grooming decreased. Our result showed that the ability of the macaques to adjust their activity in response to the number of tourists (that is, provisioning patterns) indicated their behavioral flexibility. Our result may aid the management strategies to reduce human-macaque conflicts, which has become a major problem in Padang.

Keywords:
Provisioning, Time budget, Activity pattern, Long-tailed macaque
1.
Aggimarangsee N (2013). Status monitoring of isolated populations of macaques and other nonhuman primates in Thailand. In Primates in Fragments: Ecology and Conservation (Marsh LK, ed.), pp 147–158. New York, Springer.
2.
Altmann J (1974). Observational study of behaviour: sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227–267.
3.
Altmann J, Muruthi P (1988). Differences in daily life between semiprovisioned and wild-feeding baboons. American Journal of Primatology 15: 213–221.
4.
Asquith P (1989). Provisioning and the study of free-ranging primates: history, effects and prospects. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 33: 129–158.
5.
Boug A, Biquand S, Biquand-Guyot (1994). The response of commensal hamadryas baboons to seasonal reduction in food provisioning. Revue d’Ecologie (Terre Vie) 49: 307–319.
6.
Brennan EJ, Else JG, Altmann J (1985). Ecology and behaviour of a pest primate: vervet monkeys in a tourist-lodge habitat. African Journal of Ecology 23: 35–44.
7.
Brotcorne F (2009). Behavioral ecology of commensal long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) populations in Bali (Indonesia): comparison with previous data. Foreign Research Permit No. 0232/FRP/SM/IX/09: final report. Liège, University of Liège.
8.
Chauhan A, Pirta RS (2010). Socio-ecology of two species of non-human primates, rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) and hanuman langur (Semnopithecus entellus), in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. Journal of Human Ecology 30: 171–177.
9.
Ciani AC (1986). Inter troop agonistic behavior of a feral rhesus macaque troop ranging in town and forested areas in India. Aggressive Behaviour 12: 433–439.
10.
Ding W, Zhao QK (2004). Rhinopithecus bieti at Tacheng, Yunnan: Diet and daytime activities. International Journal of Primatology 25: 583–598.
11.
Dunbar RIM (1991). Functional significance of social grooming in primates. Folia Primatologica 57: 121–131.
12.
El Alami A, Chait A (2012). Seasonal variation in activity budget and diet of the endangered Macaca sylvanus in the tourist valley of Ouzoud, Central High Atlas, Morocco. Mammalia 76: 245–250.
13.
El Alami A, van Lavieren E, Rachida A, Chait A (2012). Differences in activity budgets and diet between semiprovisioned and wild feeding groups of the endangered Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus) in the Central High Atlas Mountains, Morocco. American Journal of Primatology 74: 210–216.
14.
Fa JE (1986). Use of Time and Resources by Provisioned Troops of Monkeys: Social Behaviour, Time and Energy in the Barbary Macaque (Macaca sylvanus L.) at Gibraltar. Contributions to Primatology 23. Basel, Karger.
15.
Forthman-Quick DL, Demment MW (1988). Dynamics of exploitation: differential energetic adaptations of two troops of baboons to recent human contact. In Ecology and Behaviour of Food Enhanced Primate Groups (Fa JE, Southwick CH, eds.), pp 25–51. New York, Alan R. Liss.
16.
Fuentes A, Rompis ALT, Arta Putra IGA (2011). Macaque behavior at the human interface: the activity and demography of semi-free ranging Macaca fascicularis at Padangtegal, Bali, Indonesia. In Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and Their Interface with Humans (Gumert MD, Fuentes A, Jones-Engel L, eds.), pp 159–179. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
17.
Ganguly BN, Kaul RN, Nambiar KTN (1964). Preliminary studies on a few top feed species. Annals of Arid Zone 3: 33–37.
18.
Goodson NJ, Stevens DR, Bailey JA (1991). Effects of snow on foraging ecology and nutrition of bighorn sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management 55: 214–222.
19.
Hanya G (2004). Seasonal variations in the activity budget of Japanese macaques in the coniferous forest of Yakushima: effects of food and temperature. American Journal of Primatology 63: 165–177.
20.
Hill DA (1999). Effects of provisioning on the social behaviour of Japanese and rhesus macaques: implications for socio-ecology. Primates 40: 187–198.
21.
Hsu MJ, Kao CC, Agoramoorthy G (2009). Interactions between visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Shou-Shan Nature Park, Taiwan. American Journal of Primatology 71: 214–222.
22.
Ilham K, Nurdin J, Rizaldi, Tsuji Y (2017). Status of urban populations of the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Primates 58: 295–305.
23.
Jaman MF, Huffman M (2013). The effect of urban and rural habitats and resource type on activity budgets of commensal rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Bangladesh. Primates 54: 49–59.
24.
Kaewpanus K, Aggimarangsee N, Sitasuwan K, Wangpakapattanawong P (2015). Diet and feeding behavior of Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) at Tham Pla Temple, Chaing Rai province, Thailand. Journal of Wildlife in Thailand 22: 1–13.
25.
Kamal K, Boug A, Brain P (1997). Effects of food provisioning on the behaviour of commensal hamadryas baboons, Papio hamadryas, at Al Hada Mountain in Western Saudi Arabia. Mammalia 14: 11–22.
26.
Kogenezawa M, Imaki H (1999). The effects of food sources on Japanese monkey home range size and location, and population dynamics. Primates 40: 177–185.
27.
Koyama N (1984). Socio-ecological study of the crab-eating monkeys at Gunung Meru, West Sumatra. Kyoto University Overseas Research Report of Studies on Asian Non-Human Primates 4: 105–126.
28.
Leighton M, Leighton DR (1983). Vertebrate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rain forest. In Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management (Sutton SL, Whitmore TC, Chadwick AC, eds.), pp 181–196. Oxford, Blackwell.
29.
Malaivijitnond S, Vasquez Y, Hamada Y (2011). Human impact on long-tailed macaques in Thailand. In Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and Their Interface with Humans (Gumert MD, Fuentes A, Jones-Engel L, eds.), pp 118–158. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
30.
Marriot BM (1988). Time budgets of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in a forest habitat in Nepal and on Cayo Santiago. In Ecology and Behavior of Food-Enhanced Primate Groups (Fa FE, Southwick CH, eds.), pp 125–149. New York, Alan R. Liss.
31.
Ménard N, Vallet D (1997). Behavioral responses of Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) to variations in environmental conditions in Algeria. American Journal of Primatology 43: 285–304.
32.
Muruthi P, Altmann J, Altmann S (1991). Resource base, parity, and reproductive condition affect females’ feeding time and nutrient intake within and between groups of a baboon population. Oecologia 87: 467–472.
33.
O’Leary H, Fa JE (1993). Effects of tourists on Barbary macaques at Gibraltar. Folia Primatologica 61: 77–91.
34.
R Development Core Team (2016). R: a language and environment for statistical computing, version 3.2.3. Vienna, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. http://www.r-project.org/ (accessed Febuary 8, 2017).
35.
Ram S, Venkatachalam S, Sinha A (2003). Changing social strategies of wild female bonnet macaques during natural foraging and on provisioning. Current Science 84: 780–790.
36.
Riley E (2007). Flexibility in diet and activity patterns of Macaca tonkeana in response to anthropogenic habitat alteration. International Journal of Primatology 28: 107–133.
37.
Sabbatini G, Stammati M, Tavares MCH, Visalberghi E (2008). Behavioral flexibility of a group of bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) in the National Park of Brasília (Brazil): consequences of cohabitation with visitors. Ecology 68: 685–693.
38.
Saj T, Sicotte P, Paterson JD (1999). Influence of human food consumption on the time budget of vervets. International Journal of Primatology 20: 977–994.
39.
Sha JCM, Hanya G (2013a). Diet, activity, habitat use, and ranging of two neighboring groups of food-enhanced long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). American Journal of Primatology 75: 581–592.
40.
Sha JCM, Hanya G (2013b). Temporal food resource correlates to the behavior and ecology of food-enhanced long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Mammal Study 38: 163–175.
41.
Sinha A, Mukhopadhyay K, Datta-Roy A, Ram S (2005). Ecology proposes, behaviour disposes: ecological variability in social organization and male behavioural strategies among wild bonnet macaques. Current Science 89: 1166–1179.
42.
Strum S (2010). The development of primate raiding: implications for management and conservation. International Journal of Primatology 31: 133–156.
43.
Sussman RW, Shaffer CA, Guidi L (2011). Macaca fascicularis in Mauritius: implications for macaque-human interactions and for future research on long-tailed macaques. In Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and Their Interface with Humans (Gumert MD, Fuentes A, Jones-Engel L, eds.), pp 207–235. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
44.
Unwin T, Smith A (2010). Behavioral differences between provisioned and non-provisioned Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Anthrozoos 23: 109–118.
45.
Wheatley B, Putra DKH (1994). Biting the hand that feeds you: monkeys and tourists in Balinese monkey forests. Tropical Biodiversity 2: 317–326.
46.
Wheatley BP, Putra DKH, Gonder MK (1996). A comparison of wild and food-enhanced long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). In Evolution and Ecology of Macaque Societies (Fa JE, Lindburg DG, eds.), pp 182–204. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
47.
Wong CL (1994). Studies on the Feral Macaques of Hong Kong. Master’s thesis, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong.
48.
Wrangham RW (1974). Artificial feeding of chimpanzees and baboons in their natural habitat. Animal Behaviour 22: 83–93.
© 2018 S. Karger AG, Basel
2018
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.