... the first to be discovered, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are not the only pattern recognition receptors. TLRs are unlikely to discriminate between commensals and pathogens in the gut microbiota. There is, however, increasing evidence that TLRs shape intestinal function. In addition, certain bacteria appear...

... of innate immune cells and the inflammatory cascade play a central role. Recent studies have demonstrated that Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the sensors of microbial and endogenous danger signals, are expressed and activated in innate immune cells as well as in parenchymal cells in the liver, and thereby...