Nutritional factors, as sources of luminal antigens, have been thought to be important factors in the immunopathogenesis of numerous gastrointestinal diseases. In some diseases, the role of the nutritional component is causal in the susceptible host. Such diseases include celiac disease, a common heritable chronic inflammatory condition of the small intestine induced by dietary wheat, rye and barley, in susceptible individuals. Specific HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8 risk alleles are necessary, but not sufficient, for disease development. The well-defined role of HLA-DQ heterodimers encoded by these alleles is to present cereal peptides to CD4+ T cells, activating an inflammatory immune response in the intestine. Genome-wide association studies have been performed which identified the IL2-IL21 risk locus and other genes with immune functions and key roles in thymic T-cell selection. Another example for this group is Wilson’s disease, an autosomal recessive disorder of copper metabolism caused by mutation of the ATP7B gene, resulting in a defect of biliary copper excretion and toxic accumulation in the body, especially in the liver, brain and cornea, resulting in hepatic and/or neurological symptoms. In other diseases, however, the association is less well established. In such endeavor, epidemiological observations may become a valuable part of the overall investigations aimed at identifying dietary factors, which are involved in the initiation and perpetuation of the specific disease. As an example, relationships between nutrition and colorectal cancer have been hypothesized early on (e.g. folate, calcium, vitamin D, red meat). Similarly, intake of certain diet constituents like fat, refined sugar, fruits, vegetables and fiber was reported to be associated with the expression of inflammatory bowel diseases. In addition, in children with active Crohn’s disease, enteral nutrition was found to be equally effective as corticosteroids in induction of remission, with mucosal healing induced by downregulation of mucosal pro-inflammatory cytokine profiles in both the ileum and the colon after enteral nutrition. However, the particular effect of the consumption of each type of food remains questionable in most cases, at least in part because of insufficient data and serious methodological limitations (e.g. recall bias, heterogeneity between collected data, lack of correction for covariates, difficulties in double blinding).

Keywords:
Nutrition, Gastroenterology, Wilsonߣs disease, Celiac disease, Colorectal cancer, Inflammatory bowel disease
1.
Rewers M: Epidemiology of celiac disease: what are the prevalence, incidence, and progression of celiac disease? Gastroenterology 2005;128:S47–S51.
2.
Molberg, O, Solheim Flaete N, Jensen T, Lundin KE, Arentz-Hansen H, Anderson OD, Kjersti Uhlen A, Sollid LM: Intestinal T-cell responses to high-molecular-weight glutenins in celiac disease. Gastroenterology 2003;125:337–344.
3.
Van Duijnhoven FJ, Bueno-De-Mesquita HB, Ferrari P, Jenab M, Boshuizen HC, Ros MM, Casagrande C, Tjønneland A, Olsen A, Overvad K, Thorlacius-Ussing O, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Morois S, Kaaks R, Linseisen J, Boeing H, Nöthlings U, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Misirli G, Palli D, Sieri S, Panico S, Tumino R, Vineis P, Peeters PH, van Gils CH, Ocké MC, Lund E, Engeset D, Skeie G, Suárez LR, González CA, Sánchez MJ, Dorronsoro M, Navarro C, Barricarte A, Berglund G, Manjer J, Hallmans G, Palmqvist R, Bingham SA, Khaw KT, Key TJ, Allen NE, Boffetta P, Slimani N, Rinaldi S, Gallo V, Norat T, Riboli E: Fruit, vegetables, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 2009;89:1441–1452.
4.
Norat T, Bingham S, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Jenab M, Mazuir M, Overvad K, Olsen A, Tjønneland A, Clavel F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Kesse E, Boeing H, Bergmann MM, Nieters A, Linseisen J, Trichopoulou A, Trichopoulos D, Tountas Y, Berrino F, Palli D, Panico S, Tumino R, Vineis P, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Engeset D, Lund E, Skeie G, Ardanaz E, González C, Navarro C, Quirós JR, Sanchez MJ, Berglund G, Mattisson I, Hallmans G, Palmqvist R, Day NE, Khaw KT, Key TJ, San Joaquin M, Hémon B, Saracci R, Kaaks R, Riboli E: Meat, fish, and colorectal cancer risk: the European Prospective Investigation into cancer and nutrition. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:906–916.
5.
O’Sullivan M, O’Morain C: Nutrition in inflammatory bowel disease. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2006;20:561–573.
6.
Vader LW, Stepniak DT, Bunnik EM, Kooy YM, de Haan W, Drijfhout JW, Van Veelen PA, Koning F: Characterization of cereal toxicity for celiac disease patients based on protein homology in grains. Gastroenterology 2003;125:1105–1113.
7.
Shan L, Molberg Ø, Parrot I, Hausch F, Filiz F, Gray GM, Sollid LM, Khosla C: Structural basis for gluten intolerance in celiac sprue. Science 2002;297:2275–2279.
8.
Tye-Din JA, Stewart JA, Dromey JA, Beissbarth T, van Heel DA, Tatham A, Henderson K, Mannering SI, Gianfrani C, Jewell DP, Hill AV, McCluskey J, Rossjohn J, Anderson RP: Comprehensive, quantitative mapping of T-cell epitopes in gluten in celiac disease. Sci Transl Med 2010;2:41ra51.
9.
Karell K, Louka AS, Moodie SJ, Ascher H, Clot F, Greco L, Ciclitira PJ, Sollid LM, Partanen J: European Genetics Cluster on Celiac Disease: HLA types in celiac disease patients not carrying the DQA1*05-DQB1*02 (DQ2) heterodimer: results from the European Genetics Cluster on Celiac Disease. Hum Immunol 2003;64:469–477.
10.
Dubois PC, Trynka G, Franke L, Hunt KA, Romanos J, Curtotti A, Zhernakova A, Heap GA, Adány R, Aromaa A, Bardella MT, van den Berg LH, Bockett NA, de la Concha EG, Dema B, Fehrmann RS, Fernández-Arquero M, Fiatal S, Grandone E, Green PM, Groen HJ, Gwilliam R, Houwen RH, Hunt SE, Kaukinen K, Kelleher D, Korponay-Szabo I, Kurppa K, MacMathuna P, Mäki M, Mazzilli MC, McCann OT, Mearin ML, Mein CA, Mirza MM, Mistry V, Mora B, Morley KI, Mulder CJ, Murray JA, Núñez C, Oosterom E, Ophoff RA, Polanco I, Peltonen L, Platteel M, Rybak A, Salomaa V, Schweizer JJ, Sperandeo MP, Tack GJ, Turner G, Veldink JH, Verbeek WH, Weersma RK, Wolters VM, Urcelay E, Cukrowska B, Greco L, Neuhausen SL, McManus R, Barisani D, Deloukas P, Barrett JC, Saavalainen P, Wijmenga C, van Heel DA: Multiple common variants for celiac disease influencing immune gene expression. Nat Genet 2010;42:295–302.
11.
Van Heel DA, West J: Recent advances in coeliac disease. Gut 2006;55:1037–1046.
12.
Shaoul R, Lerner A: Associated autoantibodies in celiac disease. Autoimmun Rev 2007;6:559–565.
13.
Rostom A, Dubé C, Cranney A, Saloojee N, Sy R, Garritty C, Sampson M, Zhang L, Yazdi F, Mamaladze V, Pan I, MacNeil J, Mack D, Patel D, Moher D: The diagnostic accuracy of serologic tests for celiac disease: a systematic review. Gastroenterology 2005;128:S38–S46.
14.
Maiuri L, Ciacci C, Ricciardelli I, Vacca L, Raia V, Rispo A, Griffin M, Issekutz T, Quaratino S, Londei M: Unexpected role of surface transglutaminase type II in celiac disease. Gastroenterology 2005;129:1400–1413.
15.
Basso D, Guariso G, Fogar P, Meneghel A, Zambon CF, Navaglia F, Greco E, Schiavon S, Rugge M, Plebani M: Antibodies against synthetic deamidated gliadin peptides for celiac disease diagnosis and follow-up in children. Clin Chem 2009;55:150–157.
16.
Clemente MG, Musu MP, Frau F, Brusco G, Sole G, Corazza GR, De Virgiliis S: Immune reaction against the cytoskeleton in coeliac disease. Gut 2000;47:520–526.
17.
Carroccio A, Brusca I, Iacono G, Alessio MG, Sonzogni A, Di Prima L, Barrale M, Ottomano C, Ambrosiano G, Teresi S, D’Angelo A, Pirrone G, Cefalù B, Scalici C, La Chiusa SM: IgA anti-actin antibodies ELISA in coeliac disease: a multicentre study. Dig Liver Dis 2007;39:818–823.
18.
Carroccio A, Brusca I, Iacono G, Prima L, Teresi S, Pirrone G, Florena AM, La Chiusa SM, Averna MR: Anti-actin antibodies in celiac disease: correlation with intestinal mucosa damage and comparison of ELISA with the immunofluorescence assay. Clin Chem 2005;51:917–920.
19.
Papp M, Norman GL, Altorjay I, Lakatos PL: Utility of serological markers in inflammatory bowel diseases: gadget or magic? World J Gastroenterol 2007;13:2028–2036.
20.
Benjamin J, Makharia GK, Joshi YK: Association between intestinal permeability and anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies in patients with Crohn’s disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2008;14:1610–1611.
21.
Vermeire S, Vermeulen N, Van Assche G, Bossuyt X, Rutgeerts P: (Auto)antibodies in inflammatory bowel diseases. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2008;37:429–438.
22.
Candelli M, Nista EC, Carloni E, Pignataro G, Rigante D, Gasbarrini A: Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies and coeliac disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 2003;38:1191–1192.
23.
Ashorn S, Raukola H, Välineva T, Ashorn M, Wei B, Braun J, Rantala I, Kaukinen K, Luukkaala T, Collin P, Mäki M, Iltanen S: Elevated serum anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae, anti-I2 and anti-OmpW antibody levels in patients with suspicion of celiac disease. J Clin Immunol 2008;28:486–494.
24.
Ashorn S, Välineva T, Kaukinen K, Ashorn M, Braun J, Raukola H, Rantala I, Collin P, Mäki M, Luukkaala T, Iltanen S: Serological responses to microbial antigens in celiac disease patients during a gluten-free diet. J Clin Immunol 2009;29:190–195.
25.
Papp M, Foldi I, Altorjay I, Palyu E, Udvardy M, Tumpek J, Sipka S, Korponay-Szabo IR, Nemes E, Veres G, Dinya T, Tordai A, Andrikovics H, Norman GL, Lakatos PL: Antimicrobial antibodies in celiac disease: trick or treat? World J Gastroenterol 2009;15:3891–3900.
26.
Papp M, Altorjay I, Dotan N, Palatka K, Foldi I, Tumpek J, Sipka S, Udvardy M, Dinya T, Lakatos L, Kovacs A, Molnar T, Tulassay Z, Miheller P, Norman GL, Szamosi T, Papp J; Hungarian IBD Study Group, Lakatos PL: New serological markers for inflammatory bowel disease are associated with earlier age at onset, complicated disease behavior, risk for surgery, and NOD2/CARD15 genotype in a Hungarian IBD cohort. Am J Gastroenterol 2008;103:665–681.
27.
Hill PG, Holmes GK: Coeliac disease: a biopsy is not always necessary for diagnosis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;27:572–577.
28.
Meddings J: The significance of the gut barrier in disease. Gut 2008;57:438–440.
29.
Caca K, Ferenci P, Kuhn HJ, Polli C, Willgerodt H, Kunath B, Hermann W, Mössner J, Berr F: High prevalence of the H1069Q mutation in East German patients with Wilson disease: rapid detection of mutations by limited sequences and phenotype-genotype analysis. J Hepatol 2001;35:575–581.
30.
Gow PJ, Smallwood RA, Angus PW, Smith AL, Wall AJ, Sewell RB: Diagnosis of Wilson’s disease: an experience over three decades. Gut 2000;46:415–419.
31.
Ferenci P, Steindl-Munda P, Vogel W, Jessner W, Gschwantler M, Stauber R, Datz C, Hackl F, Wrba F, Bauer P, Lorenz O: Diagnostic value of quantitative hepatic copper determination in patients with Wilson disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:811–818.
32.
Ferenci P, Caca K, Loudianos G, Mieli-Vergani G, Tanner S, Sternlieb I, Schilsky M, Cox D, Berr F: Diagnosis and phenotypic classification of Wilson disease. Liver Int 2003;23:139–142.
33.
Durand F, Bernuau J, Giostra E, Mentha G, Shouval D, Degott C, Benhamou JP, Valla D: Wilson’s disease with severe hepatic insufficiency: beneficial effects of early administration of D-penicillamine. Gut 2001;48:849–852.
34.
Steindl P, Ferenci P, Dienes HP, Grimm G, Pabinger I, Madl C, Maier-Dobersberger T, Herneth A, Dragosics B, Meryn S, Knoflach P, Granditsch G, Gangl A: Wilson’s disease in patients presenting with liver disease: a diagnostic challenge. Gastroenterology 1997;113:212–218.
35.
Petrukhin K, Lutsenko S, Chernov I, Ross BM, Kaplan JH, Gilliam TC: Characterization of the Wilson disease gene encoding a P-type copper transporting ATPase: genomic organization, alternative splicing, and structure/function predictions. Hum Mol Genet 1994;3:1647–1656.
36.
Bull PC, Thomas GR, Rommens JM, Forbes JR, Cox DW: The Wilson disease gene is a putative copper transporting P-type ATPase similar to the Menkes disease gene. Nat Genet 1993;5:327–337.
37.
Tanzi RE, Petrukhin K, Chernov I, Pellequer JL, Wasco W, Ross B, Romano DM, Parano E, Pavone L, Brzustowicz LM, Devoto M, Peppercorn J, Bush AI, Sternlieb I, Pirastu M, Gusella JF, Evgrafov O, Penchaszadeh GK, Honig B, Edelman IS, Soares MB, Scheinberg IH, Gilliam TC: The Wilson disease gene is a copper transporting ATPase with homology to the Menkes disease gene. Nat Genet 1993;5:344–350.
38.
Bugbee D, Davies L, Kenney S, Cox DW: Wilson disease mutation database (http://www.wilsondisease.med.ualberta.ca/database.asp). Last updated July 10, 2009, accessed 28 Sept, 2010.
39.
Firneisz G, Lakatos PL, Szalay F, Polli C, Glant TT, Ferenci P: Common mutations of ATP7B in Wilson disease patients from Hungary. Am J Med Genet 2002;108:23–28.
40.
Maier-Dobersberger T, Ferenci P, Polli C, Balać P, Dienes HP, Kaserer K, Datz C, Vogel W, Gangl A: Detection of the His1069Gln mutation in Wilson disease by rapid polymerase chain reaction. Ann Intern Med 1997;127:21–26.
41.
Thomas GR, Forbes JR, Roberts EA, Walshe JM, Cox DW: The Wilson disease gene: spectrum of mutations and their consequences. Nat Genet 1995;9:210–217.
42.
Shah AB, Chernov I, Zhang HT, Ross BM, Das K, Lutsenko S, Parano E, Pavone L, Evgrafov O, Ivanova-Smolenskaya IA, Annerén G, Westermark K, Urrutia FH, Penchaszadeh GK, Sternlieb I, Scheinberg IH, Gilliam TC, Petrukhin K: Identification and analysis of mutations in the Wilson disease gene (ATP7B): population frequencies, genotype-phenotype correlation and functional analysis. Am J Hum Genet 1997;61:317–328.
43.
Riordan SM, Williams R: The Wilson’s disease gene and phenotypic diversity. J Hepatol 2001;34:165–171.
44.
Nanji MS, Nguyen VT, Kawasoe JH, Inui K, Endo F, Nakajima T, Anezaki T, Cox DW: Haplotype and mutation analysis in Japanese patients with Wilson disease. Am J Hum Genet 1997;60:1423–1429.
45.
Merle U, Weiss KH, Eisenbach C, Tuma S, Ferenci P, Stremmel W: Truncating mutations in the Wilson disease gene ATP7B are associated with very low serum ceruloplasmin oxidase activity and an early onset of Wilson disease. BMC Gastroenterol 2010;10:8.
46.
Roberts EA, Schilsky ML, American Association for Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD): Diagnosis and treatment of Wilson disease: an update. Hepatology 2008;47:2089–2111.
47.
Kim YI: Folate and colorectal cancer: an evidence-based critical review. Mol Nutr Food Res 2007;51:267–292.
48.
Carroll C, Cooper K, Papaioannou D, Hind D, Tappenden P, Pilgrim H, Booth A: Meta-analysis: folic acid in the prevention of colorectal adenomas and the chemoprevention of colorectal cancer. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;31:708–718.
49.
Cole BF, Baron JA, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen DJ, Bresalier RS, McKeown-Eyssen G, Summers RW, Rothstein RI, Burke CA, Snover DC, Church TR, Allen JI, Robertson DJ, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Byers T, Mandel JS, Mott LA, Pearson LH, Barry EL, Rees JR, Marcon N, Saibil F, Ueland PM, Greenberg ER, Polyp Prevention Study Group: Folic acid for the prevention of colorectal adenomas: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2007;297:2351–2359.
50.
Baron JA, Cole BF, Sandler RS, Haile RW, Ahnen D, Bresalier R, McKeown-Eyssen G, Summers RW, Rothstein R, Burke CA, Snover DC, Church TR, Allen JI, Beach M, Beck GJ, Bond JH, Byers T, Greenberg ER, Mandel JS, Marcon N, Mott LA, Pearson L, Saibil F, van Stolk RU: A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2003;348:891–899.
51.
Logan RF, Grainge MJ, Shepherd VC, Armitage NC, Muir KR, ukCAP Trial Group: Aspirin and folic acid for the prevention of recurrent colorectal adenomas. Gastroenterology 2008;134:29–38.
52.
Lonn E, Yusuf S, Arnold MJ, Sheridan P, Pogue J, Micks M, McQueen MJ, Probstfield J, Fodor G, Held C, Genest J Jr, Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) 2 Investigators: Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1567–1577.
53.
Zhang SM, Cook NR, Albert CM, Gaziano JM, Buring JE, Manson JE: Effect of combined folic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 on cancer risk in women: a randomized trial. JAMA 2008;300:2012–2021.
54.
Mason JB, Dickstein A, Jacques PF, Haggarty P, Selhub J, Dallal G, Rosenberg IH: A temporal association between folic acid fortification and an increase in colorectal cancer rates may be illuminating important biological principles: a hypothesis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:1325–1329.
55.
Kim YI: Folate, colorectal carcinogenesis, and DNA methylation: lessons from animal studies. Environ Mol Mutagen 2004;44:10–25.
56.
Wolpin BM, Wei EK, Ng K, Meyerhardt JA, Chan JA, Selhub J, Giovannucci EL, Fuchs CS: Prediagnostic plasma folate and the risk of death in patients with colorectal cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:3222–3228.
57.
Eussen SJ, Vollset SE, Igland J, Meyer K, Fredriksen A, Ueland PM, Jenab M, Slimani N, Boffetta P, Overvad K, Tjønneland A, Olsen A, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Morois S, Weikert C, Pischon T, Linseisen J, Kaaks R, Trichopoulou A, Zilis D, Katsoulis M, Palli D, Berrino F, Vineis P, Tumino R, Panico S, Peeters PH, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, van Duijnhoven FJ, Gram IT, Skeie G, Lund E, González CA, Martínez C, Dorronsoro M, Ardanaz E, Navarro C, Rodríguez L, Van Guelpen B, Palmqvist R, Manjer J, Ericson U, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Norat T, Riboli E: Plasma folate, related genetic variants, and colorectal cancer risk in EPIC. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010;19:1328–1340.
58.
Eussen SJ, Vollset SE, Hustad S, Midttun O, Meyer K, Fredriksen A, Ueland PM, Jenab M, Slimani N, Boffetta P, Overvad K, Thorlacius-Ussing O, Tjønneland AM, Olsen A, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Morois S, Weikert C, Pishon T, Linseisen J, Kaaks R, Trichopoulou A, Zilis D, Katsoulis M, Palli D, Pala V, Vineis PP, Tumino R, Panico S, Peeters PH, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, van Duijnhoven F, Skeie G, Muñoz X, Martínez-García C, Dorronsoro M, Ardanaz E, Navarro C, Rodriguez L, Van Guelpen B, Palmqvist R, Manjer J, Ericson UC, Bingham SA, Khaw KT, Norat T, Riboli E: Plasma vitamins B2, B6, B12, and related genetic variants as predictors of colorectal cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2010;19:2549–2561.
59.
Fuchs CS, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Speizer FE, Willett WC: Dietary fibre and the risk of colorectal cancer and adenoma in women. N Engl J Med 1999;340:169–176.
60.
Terry P, Giovannucci E, Michels KB, Bergkvist L, Hansen H, Holmberg L, Wolk A: Fruit, vegetables, dietary fibre, and risk of colorectal cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:525–533.
61.
Schatzkin A, Lanza E, Corle D, Lance P, Iber F, Caan B, Shike M, Weissfeld J, Burt R, Cooper MR, Kikendall JW, Cahill J: Lack of effect of low fat high fibre diet on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1149–1155.
62.
Alberts DS, Martinez ME, Roe DJ, Guillen-Rodriguez JM, Marshall JR, van Leeuwen JB, Reid ME, Ritenbaugh C, Vargas PA, Bhattacharyya AB, Earnest DL, Sampliner RE: Lack of effect of a high-fibre cereal supplement on the recurrence of colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1156–1162.
63.
Bonithon-Kopp C, Kronborg O, Giacosa A, Rath U, Faivre J: Calcium and fibre supplementation in prevention of colorectal adenoma recurrence: a randomised intervention trial. Lancet 2000;356:1300–1306.
64.
Key TJ, Fraser GE, Thorogood M, Appleby PN, Beral V, Reeves G, Burr ML, Chang-Claude J, Frentzel-Beyme R, Kuzma JW, Mann J, McPherson K: Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: a collaborative analysis of 8,300 deaths among 76,000 men and women in five prospective studies. Public Health Nutr 1998;1:33–41.
65.
Bingham SA, Day NE, Luben R, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Norat T, Clavel-Chapelon F, Kesse E, Nieters A, Boeing H, Tjønneland A, Overvad K, Martinez C, Dorronsoro M, Gonzalez CA, Key TJ, Trichopoulou A, Naska A, Vineis P, Tumino R, Krogh V, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Berglund G, Hallmans G, Lund E, Skeie G, Kaaks R, Riboli E: European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition: Dietary fibre in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): an observational study. Lancet 2003;361:1496–1501.
66.
Bingham SA, Norat T, Moskal A, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Clavel-Chapelon F, Kesse E, Nieters A, Boeing H, Tjønneland A, Overvad K, Martinez C, Dorronsoro M, González CA, Ardanaz E, Navarro C, Quirós JR, Key TJ, Day NE, Trichopoulou A, Naska A, Krogh V, Tumino R, Palli D, Panico S, Vineis P, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Ocké MC, Peeters PH, Berglund G, Hallmans G, Lund E, Skeie G, Kaaks R, Riboli E: Is the association with fibre from foods in colorectal cancer confounded by folate intake? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005;14:1552–1556.
67.
Grant WB, Garland CF: A critical review of studies on vitamin D in relation to colorectal cancer. Nutr Cancer 2004;48:115–123.
68.
Jenab M, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Ferrari P, van Duijnhoven FJ, Norat T, Pischon T, Jansen EH, Slimani N, Byrnes G, Rinaldi S, Tjønneland A, Olsen A, Overvad K, Boutron-Ruault MC, Clavel-Chapelon F, Morois S, Kaaks R, Linseisen J, Boeing H, Bergmann MM, Trichopoulou A, Misirli G, Trichopoulos D, Berrino F, Vineis P, Panico S, Palli D, Tumino R, Ros MM, van Gils CH, Peeters PH, Brustad M, Lund E, Tormo MJ, Ardanaz E, Rodríguez L, Sánchez MJ, Dorronsoro M, Gonzalez CA, Hallmans G, Palmqvist R, Roddam A, Key TJ, Khaw KT, Autier P, Hainaut P, Riboli E: Association between pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D concentration and risk of colorectal cancer in European populations: a nested case-control study. BMJ 2010;340: b5500.
69.
Deeb KK, Trump DL, Johnson CS: Vitamin D signalling pathways in cancer: potential for anticancer therapeutics. Nat Rev Cancer 2007;7:684–700.
70.
Carroll C, Cooper K, Papaioannou D, Hind D, Pilgrim H, Tappenden P: Supplemental calcium in the chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Ther 2010;32:789–803.
71.
Ishihara J, Inoue M, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Tsugane S: Dietary calcium, vitamin D, and the risk of colorectal cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:1576–1583.
72.
Freisling H, Fahey MT, Moskal A, Ocké MC, Ferrari P, Jenab M, Norat T, Naska A, Welch AA, Navarro C, Schulz M, Wirfält E, Casagrande C, Amiano P, Ardanaz E, Parr C, Engeset D, Grioni S, Sera F, Bueno-de-Mesquita B, van der Schouw YT, Touvier M, Boutron-Ruault MC, Halkjaer J, Dahm CC, Khaw KT, Crowe F, Linseisen J, Kröger J, Huybrechts I, Deharveng G, Manjer J, Agren A, Trichopoulou A, Tsiotas K, Riboli E, Bingham S, Slimani N: Region-specific nutrient intake patterns exhibit a geographical gradient within and between European countries. J Nutr 2010;140:1280–1286.
73.
Rocha R, Santana GO, Almeida N, Lyra AC: Analysis of fat and muscle mass in patients with inflammatory bowel disease during remission and active phase. Br J Nutr 2009;101:676–679.
74.
Yamamoto T, Nakahigashi M, Saniabadi AR: Diet and inflammatory bowel disease – epidemiology and treatment. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009;30:99–112.
75.
Lakatos PL: Recent trends in the epidemiology of inflammatory bowel diseases: up or down? World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:6102–6108.
76.
Russel MG, Engels LG, Muris JW, Limonard CB, Volovics A, Brummer RJ, Stockbrugger RW: ‘Modern life’ in the epidemiology of inflammatory bowel disease: a case-control study with special emphasis on nutritional factors. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1998;10:243–249.
77.
Jowett SL, Seal CJ, Pearce MS, Phillips E, Gregory W, Barton JR, Welfare MR: Influence of dietary factors on the clinical course of ulcerative colitis: a prospective cohort study. Gut 2004;53:1479–1484.
78.
Simopoulos AP: Omega–3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr 2002;21:495–505.
79.
Simopoulos AP: The role of fatty acids in gene expression: health implications. Ann Nutr Metab 1996;40:303–311.
80.
Endres S, Ghorbani R, Kelley VE, Georgilis K, Lonnemann G, van der Meer JW, Cannon JG, Rogers TS, Klempner MS, Weber PC, Schaefer EJ, Wolff SM, Dinarello CA: The effect of dietary supplementation with n–3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells. N Engl J Med 1989;320:265–271.
81.
Whiting CV, Bland PW, Tarlton JF: Dietary n–3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce disease and colonic proinflammatory cytokines in a mouse model of colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2005;11:340–349.
82.
Zhang P, Kim W, Zhou L, Wang N, Ly LH, McMurray DN, Chapkin RS: Dietary fish oil inhibits antigen-specific murine Th1 cell development by suppression of clonal expansion. J Nutr 2006;136:2391–2397.
83.
Almallah YZ, Richardson S, O’Hanrahan T, Mowat NA, Brunt PW, Sinclair TS, Ewen S, Heys SD, Eremin O: Distal proctocolitis, natural cytotoxicity, and essential fatty acids. Am J Gastroenterol 1998;93:804–809.
84.
Empey LR, Jewell LD, Garg ML, Thomson AB, Clandinin MT, Fedorak RN: Fish oil enriched diet is mucosal protective against acetic acid induced colitis in rats. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1991;69:480–487.
85.
Fujita T, Sakurai K: Efficacy of glutamine enriched enteral nutrition in an experimental model of mucosal ulcerative colitis. Br J Surg 1995;82:749–751.
86.
Galvez J, Rodriguez-Cabezas ME, Zarzuelo A: Effects of dietary fiber on inflammatory bowel disease. Mol Nutr Food Res 2005;49:601–608.
87.
Segain JP, Raingeard de la Bletiere D, Bourreille A, Leray V, Gervois N, Rosales C, Ferrier L, Bonnet C, Blottiere HM, Galmiche JP: Butyrate inhibits inflammatory responses through NF-kB inhibition: implications for Crohn’s disease. Gut 2000;47:397–403.
88.
Fernández-Bañares F, Hinojosa J, Sánchez-Lombraña JL, Navarro E, Martínez-Salmerón JF, García-Pugés A, González-Huix F, Riera J, González-Lara V, Domínguez-Abascal F, Giné JJ, Moles J, Gomollón F, Gassull MA: Randomized clinical trial of Plantago ovata seeds (dietary fiber) as compared with mesalamine in maintaining remission in ulcerative colitis. Spanish group for the study of Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis (GETECCU). Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:427–433.
89.
Kanauchi O, Mitsuyama K, Homma T, Takahama K, Fujiyama Y, Andoh A, Araki Y, Suga T, Hibi T, Naganuma M, Asakura H, Nakano H, Shimoyama T, Hida N, Haruma K, Koga H, Sata M, Tomiyasu N, Toyonaga A, Fukuda M, Kojima A, Bamba T: Treatment of ulcerative colitis patients by long-term administration of germinated barley foodstuff: multi-center open trial. Int J Mol Med 2003;12:701–704.
90.
Akobeng AK, Thomas AG: Enteral nutrition for maintenance of remission in Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;3: CD005984.
91.
Breese EJ, Michie CA, Nicholls SW, Williams CB, Domizio P, Walker-Smith JA, MacDonald TT: The effect of treatment on lymphokine-secreting cells in the intestinal mucosa of children with Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995;9:547–552.
92.
Fell JM, Hollis A, Paintin M, Arnaud-Battandier F, MacDonald TT, Walker-Smith JA: Normalisation of mucosal cytokine mRNA in association with clinical improvement in children with Crohn’s disease treated with polymeric diet. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1998;26:544.
93.
Meister D, Bode J, Shand A, Ghosh S: Anti-inflammatory effects of enteral diet components on Crohn’s disease-affected tissues in vitro. Dig Liver Dis 2002;34:430–438.
94.
De Jong NS, Leach ST, Day AS. Polymeric formula has direct anti-inflammatory effects on enterocytes in an in vitro model of intestinal inflammation. Dig Dis Sci 2007;52:2029–2036.
95.
Leach ST, Mitchell HM, Eng WR, Zhang L, Day AS: Sustained modulation of intestinal bacteria by exclusive enteral nutrition used to treat children with Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008;28:724–733.
96.
Akobeng AK, Richmond K, Miller V, Thomas AG: Effect of exclusive enteral nutritional treatment on plasma antioxidant concentrations in childhood Crohn’s disease. Clin Nutr 2007;26:51–56.
97.
Bannerjee K, Camacho-Hübner C, Babinska K, Dryhurst KM, Edwards R, Savage MO, Sanderson IR, Croft NM: Anti-inflammatory and growth-stimulating effects precede nutritional restitution during enteral feeding in Crohn disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2004;38:270–275.
© 2011 S. Karger AG, Basel
2011
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.