Healing and regeneration of bone injuries, particularly those that are associated with large bone defects, are a complicated process. There is growing interest in the application of osteoinductive and osteogenic growth factors and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in order to significantly improve bone repair and regeneration. MSCs are multipotent stromal stem cells that can be harvested from many different sources and differentiated into a variety of cell types, such as preosteogenic chondroblasts and osteoblasts. The effectiveness of MSC therapy is dependent on several factors, including the differentiating state of the MSCs at the time of application, the method of their delivery, the concentration of MSCs per injection, the vehicle used, and the nature and extent of injury, for example. Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, together with genetic engineering and gene therapy, are advanced options that may have the potential to improve the outcome of cell therapy. Although several in vitro and in vivo investigations have suggested the potential roles of MSCs in bone repair and regeneration, the mechanism of MSC therapy in bone repair has not been fully elucidated, the efficacy of MSC therapy has not been strongly proven in clinical trials, and several controversies exist, making it difficult to draw conclusions from the results. In this review, we update the recent advances in the mechanisms of MSC action and the delivery approaches in bone regenerative medicine. We will also review the most recent clinical trials to find out how MSCs may be beneficial for treating bone defects.

1.
Abdul Halim, N.S., K.S. Fakiruddin, S.A. Ali, B.H. Yahaya (2014) A comparative study of non-viral gene delivery techniques to human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell. Int J Mol Sci 15: 15044-15060.
2.
Abumaree, M.H., M.A. Al Jumah, B. Kalionis, D. Jawdat, A. Al Khaldi, F.M. Abomaray, A.S. Fatani, L.W. Chamley, B.A. Knawy (2013) Human placental mesenchymal stem cells (pMSCs) play a role as immune suppressive cells by shifting macrophage differentiation from inflammatory M1 to anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages. Stem Cell Rev 9: 620-641.
3.
Achille, V., M. Mantelli, G. Arrigo, F. Novara, M.A. Avanzini, M.E. Bernardo, O. Zuffardi, G. Barosi, M. Zecca, R. Maccario (2011) Cell-cycle phases and genetic profile of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells expanded in vitro from healthy donors. J Cell Biochem 112: 1817-1821.
4.
Amin, H.D., M.A. Brady, J.P. St-Pierre, M.M. Stevens, D.R. Overby, C.R. Ethier (2014) Stimulation of chondrogenic differentiation of adult human bone marrow-derived stromal cells by a moderate-strength static magnetic field. Tissue Eng Part A 20: 1612-1620.
5.
Amini, A.R., C.T. Laurencin, S.P. Nukavarapu (2012) Bone tissue engineering: recent advances and challenges. Crit Rev Biomed Eng 40: 363-408.
6.
Asami, T., M. Ishii, H. Fujii, H. Namkoong, S. Tasaka, K. Matsushita, K. Ishii, K. Yagi, H. Fujiwara, Y. Funatsu, N. Hasegawa, T. Betsuyaku (2013) Modulation of murine macrophage TLR7/8-mediated cytokine expression by mesenchymal stem cell-conditioned medium. Mediators Inflamm 2013: 264260.
7.
Baker, N., L.B. Boyette, R.S. Tuan (2015) Characterization of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in aging. Bone 70: 37-47.
8.
Bernardo, M.E., N. Zaffaroni, F. Novara, A.M. Cometa, M.A. Avanzini, A. Moretta, D. Montagna, R. Maccario, R. Villa, M.G. Daidone, O. Zuffardi, F. Locatelli (2007) Human bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells do not undergo transformation after long-term in vitro culture and do not exhibit telomere maintenance mechanisms. Cancer Res 67: 9142-9149.
9.
Bianco, P., P.G. Robey, P.J. Simmons (2008) Mesenchymal stem cells: revisiting history, concepts, and assays. Cell Stem Cell 2: 313-319.
10.
Bidic, S.M., J.W. Calvert, K. Marra, P. Kumta, P. Campbell, R. Mitchell, W. Wigginton, J.O. Hollinger, L. Weiss, M.P. Mooney (2003) Rabbit calvarial wound healing by means of seeded Caprotite scaffolds. J Dent Res 82: 131-135.
11.
Bigham-Sadegh, A., A. Oryan (2015) Basic concepts regarding fracture healing and the current options and future directions in managing bone fractures. Int Wound J 12: 238-247.
12.
Bornes, T.D., A.B. Adesida, N.M. Jomha (2014) Mesenchymal stem cells in the treatment of traumatic articular cartilage defects: a comprehensive review. Arthritis Res Ther 16: 432.
13.
Bose, S., M. Roy, A. Bandyopadhyay (2012) Recent advances in bone tissue engineering scaffolds. Trends Biotechnol 30: 546-554.
14.
Cao, Z., C. Dou, S. Dong (2014) Scaffolding biomaterials for cartilage regeneration. J Nanomater 2014: 8.
15.
Caplan, A.I., S.P. Bruder (2001) Mesenchymal stem cells: building blocks for molecular medicine in the 21st century. Trends Mol Med 7: 259-264.
16.
Carrion, F.A., F.E. Figueroa (2011) Mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus: is the cure for connective tissue diseases within connective tissue? Stem Cell Res Ther 2: 23.
17.
Castelo-Branco, M.T., I.D. Soares, D.V. Lopes, F. Buongusto, C.A. Martinusso, A. do Rosario Jr, S.A. Souza, B. Gutfilen, L.M. Fonseca, C. Elia, K. Madi, A. Schanaider, M.I. Rossi, H.S. Souza (2012) Intraperitoneal but not intravenous cryopreserved mesenchymal stromal cells home to the inflamed colon and ameliorate experimental colitis. PLoS One 7: 14.
18.
Chabner, K.T., G.B. Adams, J. Qiu, M. Moskowitz, E.S. Marsters, G.P. Topulos, D.T. Scadden (2004) Direct vascular delivery of primitive hematopoietic cells to bone marrow improves localization but not engraftment. Blood 103: 4685-4686.
19.
Chan, B.P., T.Y. Hui, M.Y. Wong, K.H. Yip, G.C. Chan (2010) Mesenchymal stem cell-encapsulated collagen microspheres for bone tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 16: 225-235.
20.
Chen, W.J., S. Jingushi, I. Aoyama, J. Anzai, G. Hirata, M. Tamura, Y. Iwamoto (2004) Effects of FGF-2 on metaphyseal fracture repair in rabbit tibiae. J Bone Miner Metab 22: 303-309.
21.
Cho, D.I., M.R. Kim, H.Y. Jeong, H.C. Jeong, M.H. Jeong, S.H. Yoon, Y.S. Kim, Y. Ahn (2014) Mesenchymal stem cells reciprocally regulate the M1/M2 balance in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages. Exp Mol Med 46: e70.
22.
Choi, H., R.H. Lee, N. Bazhanov, J.Y. Oh, D.J. Prockop (2011) Anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6 secreted by activated MSCs attenuates zymosan-induced mouse peritonitis by decreasing TLR2/NF-κB signaling in resident macrophages. Blood 118: 330-338.
23.
Connolly, J.F. (1998) Clinical use of marrow osteoprogenitor cells to stimulate osteogenesis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 355: S257-S266.
24.
Connolly, J.F., R. Shindell (1986) Percutaneous marrow injection for an ununited tibia. Nebr Med J 71: 105-107.
25.
Cui, L.-l., E. Kerkelä, A. Bakreen, F. Nitzsche, A. Andrzejewska, A. Nowakowski, M. Janowski, P. Walczak, J. Boltze, B. Lukomska, J. Jolkkonen (2015) The cerebral embolism evoked by intra-arterial delivery of allogeneic bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in rats is related to cell dose and infusion velocity. Stem Cell Res Ther 6: 11.
26.
Das, A., D.A. Barker, T. Wang, C.M. Lau, Y. Lin, E.A. Botchwey (2014) Delivery of bioactive lipids from composite microgel-microsphere injectable scaffolds enhances stem cell recruitment and skeletal repair. PLoS One 9: e101276.
27.
Datta, N., Q.P. Pham, U. Sharma, V.I. Sikavitsas, J.A. Jansen, A.G. Mikos (2006) In vitro generated extracellular matrix and fluid shear stress synergistically enhance 3D osteoblastic differentiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 2488-2493.
28.
de Girolamo, L., E. Lucarelli, G. Alessandri, M.A. Avanzini, M.E. Bernardo, E. Biagi, A.T. Brini, G. D'Amico, F. Fagioli, I. Ferrero, F. Locatelli, R. Maccario, M. Marazzi, O. Parolini, A. Pessina, M.L. Torre, G; Italian Mesenchymal Stem Cell Group (2013) Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells: a new “cells as drugs” paradigm: efficacy and critical aspects in cell therapy. Curr Pharm Des 19: 2459-2473.
29.
De Kok, I.J., S.J. Peter, M. Archambault, C. van den Bos, S. Kadiyala, I. Aukhil, L.F. Cooper (2003) Investigation of allogeneic mesenchymal stem cell-based alveolar bone formation: preliminary findings. Clin Oral Implants Res 14: 481-489.
30.
De Luca, A., M. Gallo, D. Aldinucci, D. Ribatti, L. Lamura, A. D'Alessio, R. De Filippi, A. Pinto, N. Normanno (2011) Role of the EGFR ligand/receptor system in the secretion of angiogenic factors in mesenchymal stem cells. J Cell Physiol 226: 2131-2138.
31.
De Schauwer, C., G.R. Van de Walle, A. van Soom, E. Meyer (2013) Mesenchymal stem cell therapy in horses: useful beyond orthopedic injuries? Vet Q 33: 234-241.
32.
Dennis, S.C., C.J. Berkland, L.F. Bonewald, M.S. Detamore (2015) Endochondral ossification for enhancing bone regeneration: converging native extracellular matrix biomaterials and developmental engineering in vivo. Tissue Eng Part B Rev 21: 247-266.
33.
Ehninger, A., A. Trumpp (2011) The bone marrow stem cell niche grows up: mesenchymal stem cells and macrophages move in. J Exp Med 208: 421-428.
34.
Elsattar, T., A. Alseedy, A. Khalil (2014) Bone marrow injection in treatment of long bone nonunion. Menoufia Med 27: 632-635.
35.
Ennis, W.J., A. Sui, A. Bartholomew (2013) Stem cells and healing: impact on inflammation. Adv Wound Care 2: 369-378.
36.
Eslaminejad, M.B., N. Karimi, M. Shahhoseini (2011) Enhancement of glycosaminoglycan-rich matrix production in human marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell chondrogenic culture by lithium chloride and SB216763 treatment. Cell J 13: 117-126.
37.
Eslaminejad, M.B., S. Nadri (2009) Murine mesenchymal stem cell isolated and expanded in low and high density culture system: surface antigen expression and osteogenic culture mineralization. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 45: 451-459.
38.
Eslaminejad, M.B., S. Nadri, R.H. Hosseini (2007) Expression of Thy 1.2 surface antigen increases significantly during the murine mesenchymal stem cells cultivation period. Dev Growth Differ 49: 351-364.
39.
Eslaminejad, M.B., L. Rouhi, M. Arabnajafi, H. Baharvand (2009) Rat marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells developed in a medium supplemented with the autologous versus bovine serum. Cell Biol Int 33: 607-616.
40.
Eslaminejad, M.B., L. Taghiyar (2010) Study of the structure of canine mesenchymal stem cell osteogenic culture. Anat Histol Embryol 39: 446-455.
41.
Evans, N.D., E. Gentleman, J.M. Polak (2006) Scaffolds for stem cells. Mater Today 9: 26-33.
42.
Fischer, U.M., M.T. Harting, F. Jimenez, W.O. Monzon-Posadas, H. Xue, S.I. Savitz, G.A. Laine, C.S. Cox Jr. (2009) Pulmonary passage is a major obstacle for intravenous stem cell delivery: the pulmonary first-pass effect. Stem Cells Dev 18: 683-692.
43.
Formiga, F.R., B. Pelacho, E. Garbayo, G. Abizanda, J.J. Gavira, T. Simon-Yarza, M. Mazo, E. Tamayo, C. Jauquicoa, C. Ortiz-de-Solorzano, F. Prosper, M.J. Blanco-Prieto (2010) Sustained release of VEGF through PLGA microparticles improves vasculogenesis and tissue remodeling in an acute myocardial ischemia-reperfusion model. J Control Release 147: 30-37.
44.
Friedenstein, A.J., R.K. Chailakhjan, K.S. Lalykina (1970) The development of fibroblast colonies in monolayer cultures of guinea-pig bone marrow and spleen cells. Cell Tissue Kinet 3: 393-403.
45.
Frohlich, M., W.L. Grayson, L.Q. Wan, D. Marolt, M. Drobnic, G. Vunjak-Novakovic (2008) Tissue engineered bone grafts: biological requirements, tissue culture and clinical relevance. Curr Stem Cell Res Ther 3: 254-264.
46.
Gamradt, S.C., N. Abe, M.E. Bahamonde, Y.P. Lee, S.D. Nelson, K.M. Lyons, J.R. Lieberman (2006) Tracking expression of virally mediated BMP-2 in gene therapy for bone repair. Clin Orthop Relat Res 450: 238-245.
47.
Gentile, P., A. Orlandi, M.G. Scioli, C. Di Pasquali, I. Bocchini, V. Cervelli (2012) Concise review: adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction cells and platelet-rich plasma: basic and clinical implications for tissue engineering therapies in regenerative surgery. Stem Cells Transl Med 1: 230-236.
48.
Gimbel, M., R.K. Ashley, M. Sisodia, J.S. Gabbay, K.L. Wasson, J. Heller, L. Wilson, H.K. Kawamoto, J.P. Bradley (2007) Repair of alveolar cleft defects: reduced morbidity with bone marrow stem cells in a resorbable matrix. J Craniofac Surg 18: 895-901.
49.
Giuliani, N., G. Lisignoli, M. Magnani, C. Racano, M. Bolzoni, B. Dalla Palma, A. Spolzino, C. Manferdini, C. Abati, D. Toscani, A. Facchini, F. Aversa (2013) New insights into osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and their potential clinical applications for bone regeneration in pediatric orthopaedics. Stem Cells Int 2013: 312501.
50.
Glenn, J.D., K.A. Whartenby (2014) Mesenchymal stem cells: emerging mechanisms of immunomodulation and therapy. World J Stem Cells 6: 526-539.
51.
Gomez-Barrena, E., P. Rosset, I. Muller, R. Giordano, C. Bunu, P. Layrolle, Y.T. Konttinen, F.P. Luyten (2011) Bone regeneration: stem cell therapies and clinical studies in orthopaedics and traumatology. J Cell Mol Med 15: 1266-1286.
52.
Gordon, J.A., M.Q. Hassan, M. Koss, M. Montecino, L. Selleri, A.J. van Wijnen, J.L. Stein, G.S. Stein, J.B. Lian (2011) Epigenetic regulation of early osteogenesis and mineralized tissue formation by a HOXA10-PBX1-associated complex. Cells Tissues Organs 194: 146-150.
53.
Granero-Moltó, F., J.A. Weis, M.I. Miga, B. Landis, T.J. Myers, L. O'Rear, L. Longobardi, E.D. Jansen, D.P. Mortlock, A. Spagnoli (2009) Regenerative effects of transplanted mesenchymal stem cells in fracture healing. Stem Cells 27: 1887-1898.
54.
Grayson, W.L., B.A. Bunnell, E. Martin, T. Frazier, B.P. Hung, J.M. Gimble (2015) Stromal cells and stem cells in clinical bone regeneration. Nat Rev Endocrinol 11: 140-150.
55.
Grellier, M., L. Bordenave, J. Amedee (2009) Cell-to-cell communication between osteogenic and endothelial lineages: implications for tissue engineering. Trends Biotechnol 27: 562-571.
56.
Guo, X., H. Park, G. Liu, W. Liu, Y. Cao, Y. Tabata, F.K. Kasper, A.G. Mikos (2009) In vitro generation of an osteochondral construct using injectable hydrogel composites encapsulating rabbit marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 30: 2741-2752.
57.
Hauzeur, J.P., V. Gangji (2010) Phases 1-3 clinical trials using adult stem cells in osteonecrosis and nonunion fractures. Stem Cells Int 26: 410170.
58.
Hayashi, O., Y. Katsube, M. Hirose, H. Ohgushi, H. Ito (2008) Comparison of osteogenic ability of rat mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow, periosteum, and adipose tissue. Calcif Tissue Int 82: 238-247.
59.
He, X., R. Dziak, X. Yuan, K. Mao, R. Genco, M. Swihart, D. Sarkar, C. Li, C. Wang, L. Lu, S. Andreadis, S. Yang (2013) BMP2 genetically engineered MSCs and EPCs promote vascularized bone regeneration in rat critical-sized calvarial bone defects. PLoS One 8: e60473.
60.
Healey, J.H., P.A. Zimmerman, J.M. McDonnell, J.M. Lane (1990) Percutaneous bone marrow grafting of delayed union and nonunion in cancer patients. Clin Orthop Relat Res 256: 280-285.
61.
Hermund, N.U., A. Stavropoulos, O. Donatsky, H. Nielsen, C. Clausen, J. Reibel, B. Pakkenberg, P. Holmstrup (2012) Reimplantation of cultivated human bone cells from the posterior maxilla for sinus floor augmentation: histological results from a randomized controlled clinical trial. Clin Oral Implants Res 23: 1031-1037.
62.
Hernigou, P., F. Beaujean (2002) Treatment of osteonecrosis with autologous bone marrow grafting. Clin Orthop Relat Res 405: 14-23.
63.
Hernigou, P., G. Mathieu, A. Poignard, O. Manicom, F. Beaujean, H. Rouard (2006) Percutaneous autologous bone-marrow grafting for nonunions: surgical technique. J Bone Joint Surg Am 88(suppl 1): 322-327.
64.
Hipp, J., A. Atala (2004) Tissue engineering, stem cells, cloning, and parthenogenesis: new paradigms for therapy. J Exp Clin Assist Reprod 1: 3.
65.
Horwitz, E.M., P.L. Gordon, W.K. Koo, J.C. Marx, M.D. Neel, R.Y. McNall, L. Muul, T. Hofmann (2002) Isolated allogeneic bone marrow-derived mesenchymal cells engraft and stimulate growth in children with osteogenesis imperfecta: implications for cell therapy of bone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 8932-8937.
66.
Horwitz, E.M., D.J. Prockop, L.A. Fitzpatrick, W.W. Koo, P.L. Gordon, M. Neel, M. Sussman, P. Orchard, J.C. Marx, R.E. Pyeritz, M.K. Brenner (1999) Transplantability and therapeutic effects of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal cells in children with osteogenesis imperfecta. Nat Med 5: 309-313.
67.
Horwitz, E.M., D.J. Prockop, P.L. Gordon, W.W. Koo, L.A. Fitzpatrick, M.D. Neel, M.E. McCarville, P.J. Orchard, R.E. Pyeritz, M.K. Brenner (2001) Clinical responses to bone marrow transplantation in children with severe osteogenesis imperfecta. Blood 97: 1227-1231.
68.
Houlden, H., P. Charlton, D. Singh (2007) Neurology and orthopaedics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 78: 224-232.
69.
Huang, S., L. Xu, Y. Zhang, Y. Sun, G. Li (2015) Systemic and local administration of allogeneic bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells promotes fracture healing in rats. Cell Transplant 24: 2643-2655.
70.
Hudson, J.W., J.G. Anderson, R.M. Russell Jr, N. Anderson, K. Chambers (1995) Use of pedicled fat pad graft as an adjunct in the reconstruction of palatal cleft defects. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 80: 24-27.
71.
Izadpanah, R., B.A. Bunnell (2008) Gene delivery to mesenchymal stem cells. Methods Mol Biol 449: 153-167.
72.
Jacobs, S.A., V.D. Roobrouck, C.M. Verfaillie, S.W. van Gool (2013) Immunological characteristics of human mesenchymal stem cells and multipotent adult progenitor cells. Immunol Cell Biol 91: 32-39.
73.
Jafarian, M., M.B. Eslaminejad, A. Khojasteh, F. Mashhadi Abbas, M.M. Dehghan, R. Hassanizadeh, B. Houshmand (2008) Marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells-directed bone regeneration in the dog mandible: a comparison between biphasic calcium phosphate and natural bone mineral. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 105: e14-e24.
74.
Janowski, M., A. Lyczek, C. Engels, J. Xu, B. Lukomska, J.W. Bulte, P. Walczak (2013) Cell size and velocity of injection are major determinants of the safety of intracarotid stem cell transplantation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 33: 921-927.
75.
Jones, E.A., A. English, K. Henshaw, S.E. Kinsey, A.F. Markham, P. Emery, D. McGonagle (2004) Enumeration and phenotypic characterization of synovial fluid multipotential mesenchymal progenitor cells in inflammatory and degenerative arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 50: 817-827.
76.
Jurgens, W.J., R.J. Kroeze, B. Zandieh-Doulabi, A. van Dijk, G.A. Renders, T.H. Smit, F.J. van Milligen, M.J. Ritt, M.N. Helder (2013) One-step surgical procedure for the treatment of osteochondral defects with adipose-derived stem cells in a caprine knee defect: a pilot study. Biores Open Access 2: 315-325.
77.
Kadiyala, S., R.G. Young, M.A. Thiede, S.P. Bruder (1997) Culture expanded canine mesenchymal stem cells possess osteochondrogenic potential in vivo and in vitro. Cell Transplant 6: 125-134.
78.
Kaigler, D., G. Pagni, C.H. Park, T.M. Braun, L.A. Holman, E. Yi, S.A. Tarle, R.L. Bartel, W.V. Giannobile (2013) Stem cell therapy for craniofacial bone regeneration: a randomized, controlled feasibility trial. Cell Transplant 22: 767-777.
79.
Kean, T.J., P. Lin, A.I. Caplan, J.E. Dennis (2013) MSCs: delivery routes and engraftment, cell-targeting strategies, and immune modulation. Stem Cells Int 2013: 732742.
80.
Kim, J., I.S. Kim, T.H. Cho, H.C. Kim, S.J. Yoon, J. Choi, Y. Park, K. Sun, S.J. Hwang (2010) In vivo evaluation of MMP sensitive high-molecular weight HA-based hydrogels for bone tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 95: 673-681.
81.
Kim, J., I.S. Kim, T.H. Cho, K.B. Lee, S.J. Hwang, G. Tae, I. Noh, S.H. Lee, Y. Park, K. Sun (2007) Bone regeneration using hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel with bone morphogenic protein-2 and human mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 28: 1830-1837.
82.
Kim, S.-H., Y.-S. Kim, S.-Y. Lee, K.-H. Kim, Y.-M. Lee, W.-K. Kim, Y.-K. Lee (2011) Gene expression profile in mesenchymal stem cells derived from dental tissues and bone marrow. J Periodontal Implant Sci 41: 192-200.
83.
Kim, S.J., Y.W. Shin, K.H. Yang, S.B. Kim, M.J. Yoo, S.K. Han, S.A. Im, Y.D. Won, Y.B. Sung, T.S. Jeon, C.H. Chang, J.D. Jang, S.B. Lee, H.C. Kim, S.Y. Lee (2009) A multi-center, randomized, clinical study to compare the effect and safety of autologous cultured osteoblast (Ossron) injection to treat fractures. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 10: 20.
84.
Kitaori, T., H. Ito, E.M. Schwarz, R. Tsutsumi, H. Yoshitomi, S. Oishi, M. Nakano, N. Fujii, T. Nagasawa, T. Nakamura (2009) Stromal cell-derived factor 1/CXCR4 signaling is critical for the recruitment of mesenchymal stem cells to the fracture site during skeletal repair in a mouse model. Arthritis Rheum 60: 813-823.
85.
Kovach, T.K., A.S. Dighe, P.I. Lobo, Q. Cui (2015) Interactions between MSCs and immune cells: implications for bone healing. J Immunol Res 2015: 17.
86.
Krebsbach, P.H., M.H. Mankani, K. Satomura, S.A. Kuznetsov, P.G. Robey (1998) Repair of craniotomy defects using bone marrow stromal cells. Transplantation 66: 1272-1278.
87.
Le Blanc, K., C. Gotherstrom, O. Ringden, M. Hassan, R. McMahon, E. Horwitz, G. Anneren, O. Axelsson, J. Nunn, U. Ewald, S. Norden-Lindeberg, M. Jansson, A. Dalton, E. Astrom, M. Westgren (2005) Fetal mesenchymal stem-cell engraftment in bone after in utero transplantation in a patient with severe osteogenesis imperfecta. Transplantation 79: 1607-1614.
88.
Lee, G.S., J.H. Park, U.S. Shin, H.W. Kim (2011) Direct deposited porous scaffolds of calcium phosphate cement with alginate for drug delivery and bone tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 7: 3178-3186.
89.
Lee, J.H., N.G. Rim, H.S. Jung, H. Shin (2010) Control of osteogenic differentiation and mineralization of human mesenchymal stem cells on composite nanofibers containing poly[lactic-co-(glycolic acid)] and hydroxyapatite. Macromol Biosci 10: 173-182.
90.
Lee, O.K., T.K. Kuo, W.M. Chen, K.D. Lee, S.L. Hsieh, T.H. Chen (2004) Isolation of multipotent mesenchymal stem cells from umbilical cord blood. Blood 103: 1669-1675.
91.
Lee, R.H., A.A. Pulin, M.J. Seo, D.J. Kota, J. Ylostalo, B.L. Larson, L. Semprun-Prieto, P. Delafontaine, D.J. Prockop (2009) Intravenous hMSCs improve myocardial infarction in mice because cells embolized in lung are activated to secrete the anti-inflammatory protein TSG-6. Cell Stem Cell 5: 54-63.
92.
Levi, B., A.W. James, E.R. Nelson, S. Li, M. Peng, G.W. Commons, M. Lee, B. Wu, M.T. Longaker (2010) Human adipose-derived stromal cells stimulate autogenous skeletal repair via paracrine hedgehog signaling with calvarial osteoblasts. Stem Cells Dev 20: 243-257.
93.
Levi, B., M.T. Longaker (2011) Adipose derived stromal cells for skeletal regenerative medicine. Stem Cells 29: 576-582.
94.
Li, F., N. Whyte, C. Niyibizi (2012) Differentiating multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells generate factors that exert paracrine activities on exogenous MSCs: implications for paracrine activities in bone regeneration. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 426: 475-479.
95.
Li, H., K. Dai, T. Tang, X. Zhang, M. Yan, J. Lou (2007) Bone regeneration by implantation of adipose-derived stromal cells expressing BMP-2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 356: 836-842.
96.
Liao, J., X. Guo, D. Nelson, F.K. Kasper, A.G. Mikos (2010) Modulation of osteogenic properties of biodegradable polymer/extracellular matrix scaffolds generated with a flow perfusion bioreactor. Acta Biomater 6: 2386-2393.
97.
Liebergall, M., J. Schroeder, R. Mosheiff, Z. Gazit, Z. Yoram, L. Rasooly, A. Daskal, A. Khoury, Y. Weil, S. Beyth (2013) Stem cell-based therapy for prevention of delayed fracture union: a randomized and prospective preliminary study. Mol Ther 21: 1631-1638.
98.
Lotfy, A., M. Salama, F. Zahran, E. Jones, A. Badawy, M. Sobh (2014) Characterization of mesenchymal stem cells derived from rat bone marrow and adipose tissue: a comparative study. Int J Stem Cells 7: 135-142.
99.
Luo, Y., M.S. Shoichet (2004) Light-activated immobilization of biomolecules to agarose hydrogels for controlled cellular response. Biomacromolecules 5: 2315-2323.
100.
Mallela, J., S. Ravi, F. Jean Louis, B. Mulaney, M. Cheung, U. Sree Garapati, V. Chinnasamy, C. Wang, S. Nagaraj, S.S. Mohapatra, S. Mohapatra (2013) Natriuretic peptide receptor A signaling regulates stem cell recruitment and angiogenesis: a model to study linkage between inflammation and tumorigenesis. Stem Cells 31: 1321-1329.
101.
Mallick, K.K., S.C. Cox (2013) Biomaterial scaffolds for tissue engineering. Front Biosci 5: 341-360.
102.
Mangano, F., F. Luongo, J.A. Shibli, S. Anil, C. Mangano (2014) Maxillary overdentures supported by four splinted direct metal laser sintering implants: a 3-year prospective clinical study. Int J Dent 2014: 9.
103.
Manieri, N.A., M.R. Mack, M.D. Himmelrich, D.L. Worthley, E.M. Hanson, L. Eckmann, T.C. Wang, T.S. Stappenbeck (2015) Mucosally transplanted mesenchymal stem cells stimulate intestinal healing by promoting angiogenesis. J Clin Invest 125: 3606-3618.
104.
Mankani, M.H., S.A. Kuznetsov, R.M. Wolfe, G.W. Marshall, P.G. Robey (2006) In vivo bone formation by human bone marrow stromal cells: reconstruction of the mouse calvarium and mandible. Stem Cells 24: 2140-2149.
105.
Marion, N.W., J.J. Mao (2006) Mesenchymal stem cells and tissue engineering. Methods Enzymol 420: 339-361.
106.
Marrelli, M., G. Falisi, A. Apicella, D. Apicella, M. Amantea, A. Cielo, L. Bonanome, F. Palmieri, L. Santacroce, S. Giannini, E. Di Fabrizio, C. Rastelli, M. Gargari, G. Cuda, F. Paduano, M. Tatullo (2015a) Behaviour of dental pulp stem cells on different types of innovative mesoporous and nanoporous silicon scaffolds with different functionalizations of the surfaces. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 29: 991-997.
107.
Marrelli, M., F. Paduano, M. Tatullo (2015b) Human periapical cyst-mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into neuronal cells. J Dent Res 94: 843-852.
108.
Marrelli, M., M. Tatullo (2013) Influence of PRF in the healing of bone and gingival tissues: clinical and histological evaluations. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 17: 1958-1962.
109.
Mathieu, P.S., E.G. Loboa (2012) Cytoskeletal and focal adhesion influences on mesenchymal stem cell shape, mechanical properties, and differentiation down osteogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic pathways. Tissue Eng B Rev 18: 436-444.
110.
Mehta, M., K. Schmidt-Bleek, G.N. Duda, D.J. Mooney (2012) Biomaterial delivery of morphogens to mimic the natural healing cascade in bone. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 64: 1257-1276.
111.
Meier, R.P., Y.D. Muller, P. Morel, C. Gonelle-Gispert, L.H. Buhler (2013) Transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of liver diseases, is there enough evidence? Stem Cell Res 11: 1348-1364.
112.
Melek, L.N. (2015) Tissue engineering in oral and maxillofacial reconstruction. Tanta Dent J 12: 211-223.
113.
Monteiro, D.R., E.V. Silva, E.P. Pellizzer, O.M. Filho, M.C. Goiato (2015) Posterior partially edentulous jaws, planning a rehabilitation with dental implants. World J Clin Cases 3: 65-76.
114.
Moreau, J.L., H.H. Xu (2009) Mesenchymal stem cell proliferation and differentiation on an injectable calcium phosphate-chitosan composite scaffold. Biomaterials 30: 2675-2682.
115.
Moshiri, A., A. Oryan (2013) Role of platelet-rich plasma in soft and hard connective tissue healing: an evidence-based review from basic to clinical application. Hard Tissue 2: 6.
116.
Moshiri, A., A. Oryan, A. Meimandi-Parizi (2015a) Synthesis, development, characterization and effectiveness of bovine pure platelet gel-collagen-polydioxanone bioactive graft on tendon healing. J Cell Mol Med 19: 1308-1332.
117.
Moshiri, A., M. Shahrezaee, B. Shekarchi, A. Oryan, K. Azma (2015b) Three-dimensional porous Gelapin-Simvastatin scaffolds promoted bone defect healing in rabbits. Calcif Tissue Int 96: 552-564.
118.
Murphy, C.M., M.G. Haugh, F.J. O'Brien (2010) The effect of mean pore size on cell attachment, proliferation and migration in collagen-glycosaminoglycan scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 31: 461-466.
119.
Murphy, M.B., K. Moncivais, A.I. Caplan (2013) Mesenchymal stem cells: environmentally responsive therapeutics for regenerative medicine. Exp Mol Med 45: e54.
120.
Murrell, W.D., A.W. Anz, H. Badsha, W.F. Bennett, R.E. Boykin, A.I. Caplan (2015) Regenerative treatments to enhance orthopedic surgical outcome. Pm R 7(suppl 4): S41-S52.
121.
Nanes, M.S. (2003) Tumor necrosis factor-α: molecular and cellular mechanisms in skeletal pathology. Gene 321: 1-15.
122.
Nsair, A., W.R. MacLellan (2011) Induced pluripotent stem cells for regenerative cardiovascular therapies and biomedical discovery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 63: 324-330.
123.
Olmsted-Davis, E., F.H. Gannon, M. Ozen, M.M. Ittmann, Z. Gugala, J.A. Hipp, K.M. Moran, C.M. Fouletier-Dilling, S. Schumara-Martin, R.W. Lindsey, M.H. Heggeness, M.K. Brenner, A.R. Davis (2007) Hypoxic adipocytes pattern early heterotopic bone formation. Am J Pathol 170: 620-632.
124.
Oryan, A., S. Alidadi, A. Moshiri, A. Bigham- Sadegh (2014a) Bone morphogenetic proteins: a powerful osteoinductive compound with non-negligible side effects and limitations. Biofactors 40: 459-481.
125.
Oryan, A., S. Alidadi, A. Moshiri, N. Maffulli (2014b) Bone regenerative medicine: classic options, novel strategies, and future directions. J Orthop Surg Res 9: 9-18.
126.
Oryan, A., A. Kamali, A. Moshiri (2015) Potential mechanisms and applications of statins on osteogenesis: current modalities, conflicts and future directions. J Control Release 215: 12-24.
127.
Oryan, A., A. Moshiri (2013) Tissue engineering: alternative option in managing large and massive tissue deficits. Trop Med Surg 1: e101.
128.
Otsuru, S., K. Tamai, T. Yamazaki, H. Yoshikawa, Y. Kaneda (2007) Bone marrow-derived osteoblast progenitor cells in circulating blood contribute to ectopic bone formation in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 354: 453-458.
129.
Pak, J., J.H. Lee, S.H. Lee (2014) Regenerative repair of damaged meniscus with autologous adipose tissue-derived stem cells. Biomed Res Int 436029: 30.
130.
Papandreou, I., R.A. Cairns, L. Fontana, A.L. Lim, N.C. Denko (2006) HIF-1 mediates adaptation to hypoxia by actively downregulating mitochondrial oxygen consumption. Cell Metab 3: 187-197.
131.
Park, S.H., A. Tofighi, X. Wang, M. Strunk, T. Ricketts, J. Chang, D.L. Kaplan (2011) Calcium phosphate combination biomaterials as human mesenchymal stem cell delivery vehicles for bone repair. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 97: 235-244.
132.
Pelegrine, A.A., C.E. da Costa, M.E. Correa, J.F. Marques Jr. (2010) Clinical and histomorphometric evaluation of extraction sockets treated with an autologous bone marrow graft. Clin Oral Implants Res 21: 535-542.
133.
Peng, F., H. Wu, Y. Zheng, X. Xu, J. Yu (2012) The effect of noncoherent red light irradiation on proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Lasers Med Sci 27: 645-653.
134.
Pham, Q.P., F.K. Kasper, A.S. Mistry, U. Sharma, A.W. Yasko, J.A. Jansen, A.G. Mikos (2009) Analysis of the osteoinductive capacity and angiogenicity of an in vitro generated extracellular matrix. J Biomed Mater Res A 88: 295-303.
135.
Pitchford, S.C., R.C. Furze, C.P. Jones, A.M. Wengner, S.M. Rankin (2009) Differential mobilization of subsets of progenitor cells from the bone marrow. Cell Stem Cell 4: 62-72.
136.
Pittet, M.J., M. Nahrendorf, F.K. Swirski (2014) The journey from stem cell to macrophage. Ann NY Acad Sci 1319: 1-18.
137.
Poser, L., R. Matthys, P. Schawalder, S. Pearce, M. Alini, S. Zeiter (2014) A standardized critical size defect model in normal and osteoporotic rats to evaluate bone tissue engineered constructs. Biomed Res Int 2014: 11348635.
138.
Qin, X., R.M. Raj, X.F. Liao, W. Shi, B. Ma, S.Q. Gong, W.M. Chen, B. Zhou (2014a) Using rigidly fixed autogenous tooth graft to repair bone defect: an animal model. Dent Traumatol 30: 380-384.
139.
Qin, Y., J. Guan, C. Zhang (2014b) Mesenchymal stem cells: mechanisms and role in bone regeneration. Postgrad Med J 90: 643-647.
140.
Radice, M., P. Brun, R. Cortivo, R. Scapinelli, C. Battaliard, G. Abatangelo (2000) Hyaluronan-based biopolymers as delivery vehicles for bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal progenitors. J Biomed Mater Res 50: 101-109.
141.
Rauh, J., F. Milan, K.P. Gunther, M. Stiehler (2011) Bioreactor systems for bone tissue engineering. Tissue Eng B Rev 17: 263-280.
142.
Raynaud, C.M., A. Rafii (2013) The necessity of a systematic approach for the use of MSCs in the clinical setting. Stem Cells Int 2013: 892340.
143.
Reiser, J., X.Y. Zhang, C.S. Hemenway, D. Mondal, L. Pradhan, V.F. La Russa (2005) Potential of mesenchymal stem cells in gene therapy approaches for inherited and acquired diseases. Expert Opin Biol Ther 5: 1571-1584.
144.
Rickert, D., S. Sauerbier, H. Nagursky, D. Menne, A. Vissink, G.M. Raghoebar (2011) Maxillary sinus floor elevation with bovine bone mineral combined with either autogenous bone or autogenous stem cells: a prospective randomized clinical trial. Clin Oral Implants Res 22: 251-258.
145.
Robey, P.G. (2011) Cell sources for bone regeneration: the good, the bad, and the ugly (but promising). Tissue Eng B Rev 17: 423-430.
146.
Roddy, G.W., J.Y. Oh, R.H. Lee, T.J. Bartosh, J. Ylostalo, K. Coble, R.H. Rosa Jr, D.J. Prockop (2011) Action at a distance: systemically administered adult stem/progenitor cells (MSCs) reduce inflammatory damage to the cornea without engraftment and primarily by secretion of TNF-α stimulated gene/protein 6. Stem Cells 29: 1572-1579.
147.
Rokn, A., A.R. Ghahroudi, S. Hemati, A. Soolari (2011) Comparison of peri-implant bone loss and survival of maxillary intrasinus and extrasinus implants after 2 years. J Dent 8: 130-137.
148.
Roy, S., J. Driggs, H. Elgharably, S. Biswas, M. Findley, S. Khanna, U. Gnyawali, V.K. Bergdall, C.K. Sen (2011) Platelet-rich fibrin matrix improves wound angiogenesis via inducing endothelial cell proliferation. Wound Repair Regen 19: 753-766.
149.
Santos, J.L., D. Pandita, J. Rodrigues, A.P. Pego, P.L. Granja, H. Tomas (2011) Non-viral gene delivery to mesenchymal stem cells: methods, strategies and application in bone tissue engineering and regeneration. Curr Gene Ther 11: 46-57.
150.
Sarkar, S.K., B.T. Lee (2015) Hard tissue regeneration using bone substitutes: an update on innovations in materials. Korean J Intern Med 30: 279-293.
151.
Sauerbier, S., D. Rickert, R. Gutwald, H. Nagursky, T. Oshima, S.P. Xavier, J. Christmann, P. Kurz, D. Menne, A. Vissink, G. Raghoebar, R. Schmelzeisen, W. Wagner, F.P. Koch (2011) Bone marrow concentrate and bovine bone mineral for sinus floor augmentation: a controlled, randomized, single-blinded clinical and histological trial - per-protocol analysis. Tissue Eng A 17: 2187-2197.
152.
Sauerbier, S., A. Stricker, J. Kuschnierz, F. Buhler, T. Oshima, S.P. Xavier, R. Schmelzeisen, R. Gutwald (2010) In vivo comparison of hard tissue regeneration with human mesenchymal stem cells processed with either the FICOLL method or the BMAC method. Tissue Engineering C Methods 16: 215-223.
153.
Schmidt-Bleek, K., H. Schell, J. Lienau, N. Schulz, P. Hoff, M. Pfaff, G. Schmidt, C. Martin, C. Perka, F. Buttgereit, H.D. Volk, G. Duda (2014) Initial immune reaction and angiogenesis in bone healing. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 8: 120-130.
154.
Seamon, J., X. Wang, F. Cui, T. Keller, A.S. Dighe, G. Balian, Q. Cui (2013) Adenoviral delivery of the VEGF and BMP-6 genes to rat mesenchymal stem cells potentiates osteogenesis. Bone Marrow Res 2013: 737580.
155.
Shao, J., W. Zhang, T. Yang (2015) Using mesenchymal stem cells as a therapy for bone regeneration and repairing. Biol Res 48: 62.
156.
Simmons, C.A., E. Alsberg, S. Hsiong, W.J. Kim, D.J. Mooney (2004) Dual growth factor delivery and controlled scaffold degradation enhance in vivo bone formation by transplanted bone marrow stromal cells. Bone 35: 562-569.
157.
Smadja, D.M., C. d'Audigier, C.L. Guerin, L. Mauge, B. Dizier, J.S. Silvestre, L. Dal Cortivo, P. Gaussem, J. Emmerich (2012) Angiogenic potential of BM MSCs derived from patients with critical leg ischemia. Bone Marrow Transplant 47: 997-1000.
158.
Sorrell, J.M., M.A. Baber, A.I. Caplan (2009) Influence of adult mesenchymal stem cells on in vitro vascular formation. Tissue Eng A 15: 1751-1761.
159.
Stroncek, J.D., W.M. Reichert (2008) Overview of wound healing in different tissue types; in Reichert WM (ed): Indwelling Neural Implants: Strategies for Contending with the in vivo Environment. Boca Raton, CRC Press.
160.
Sun, H., Z. Qu, Y. Guo, G. Zang, B. Yang (2007) In vitro and in vivo effects of rat kidney vascular endothelial cells on osteogenesis of rat bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells growing on polylactide-glycoli acid (PLGA) scaffolds. Biomed Eng Online 6: 41.
161.
Tao, J., Y. Sun, Q.G. Wang, C.W. Liu (2009) Induced endothelial cells enhance osteogenesis and vascularization of mesenchymal stem cells. Cells Tissues Organs 190: 185-193.
162.
Tatullo, M., G. Falisi, M. Amantea, C. Rastelli, F. Paduano, M. Marrelli (2015a) Dental pulp stem cells and human periapical cysts mesenchymal stem cells in bone tissue regeneration: comparison of basal and osteogenic differentiated gene expression of a newly discovered mesenchymal stem cell lineage. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 29: 713-718.
163.
Tatullo, M., M. Marrelli, G. Falisi, C. Rastelli, F. Palmieri, M. Gargari, B. Zavan, F. Paduano, V. Benagiano (2016) Mechanical influence of tissue culture plates and extracellular matrix on mesenchymal stem cell behavior: a topical review. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 29: 3-8.
164.
Tatullo, M., M. Marrelli, F. Paduano (2015b) The regenerative medicine in oral and maxillofacial surgery: the most important innovations in the clinical application of mesenchymal stem cells. Int J Med Sci 12: 72-77.
165.
Tatullo, M., M. Marrelli, K.M. Shakesheff, L.J. White (2015c) Dental pulp stem cells: function, isolation and applications in regenerative medicine. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 9: 1205-1216.
166.
Tavakolinejad, S., A. Ebrahimzadeh Bidskan, H. Ashraf, D. Hamidi Alamdari (2014) A glance at methods for cleft palate repair. Iran Red Crescent Med J 16: e15393.
167.
Terella, A., P. Mariner, N. Brown, K. Anseth, S.O. Streubel (2010) Repair of a calvarial defect with biofactor and stem cell-embedded polyethylene glycol scaffold. Arch Facial Plastic Surg 12: 166-171.
168.
Thibault, R.A., L. Scott Baggett, A.G. Mikos, F.K. Kasper (2010) Osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells on pregenerated extracellular matrix scaffolds in the absence of osteogenic cell culture supplements. Tissue Eng A 16: 431-440.
169.
Toupadakis, C.A., A. Wong, D.C. Genetos, D.J. Chung, D. Murugesh, M.J. Anderson, G.G. Loots, B.A. Christiansen, A.S. Kapatkin, C.E. Yellowley (2012) Long-term administration of AMD3100, an antagonist of SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling, alters fracture repair. J Orthop Res 30: 1853-1859.
170.
Trautmann, F., M. Cojoc, I. Kurth, N. Melin, L.C. Bouchez, A. Dubrovska, C. Peitzsch (2014) CXCR4 as biomarker for radioresistant cancer stem cells. Int J Radiat Biol 90: 687-699.
171.
Umebayashi, M., Y. Sumita, Y. Kawai, S. Watanabe, I. Asahina (2015) Gene-activated matrix comprised of atelocollagen and plasmid DNA encoding BMP4 or Runx2 promotes rat cranial bone augmentation. Biores Open Access 4: 164-174.
172.
Wang, Z., H. Song, H. Deng, J. Chen, L. Zhang, Y. Li (2009) Causes and treatment of long bone fracture nonunion after allogeneic bone grafting surgery (in Chinese). Zhongguo Xiu Fu Chong Jian Wai Ke Za Zhi 23: 534-537.
173.
Waterman, R.S., S.L. Tomchuck, S.L. Henkle, A.M. Betancourt (2010) A new mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) paradigm: polarization into a pro-inflammatory MSC1 or an Immunosuppressive MSC2 phenotype. PLoS One 5: e10088.
174.
Williams, D.F. (2008) On the mechanisms of biocompatibility. Biomaterials 29: 2941-2953.
175.
Wu, C., Y. Zhou, W. Fan, P. Han, J. Chang, J. Yuen, M. Zhang, Y. Xiao (2012) Hypoxia-mimicking mesoporous bioactive glass scaffolds with controllable cobalt ion release for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 33: 2076-2085.
176.
Wu, Y., L. Chen, P.G. Scott, E.E. Tredget (2007) Mesenchymal stem cells enhance wound healing through differentiation and angiogenesis. Stem Cells 25: 2648-2659.
177.
Wyse, R.D., G.L. Dunbar, J. Rossignol (2014) Use of genetically modified mesenchymal stem cells to treat neurodegenerative diseases. Int J Mol Sci 15: 1719-1745.
178.
Xue, Y., Z. Xing, S. Hellem, K. Arvidson, K. Mustafa (2009) Endothelial cells influence the osteogenic potential of bone marrow stromal cells. Biomed Eng Online 8: 34.
179.
Yang, C., H. Frei, F.M. Rossi, H.M. Burt (2009) The differential in vitro and in vivo responses of bone marrow stromal cells on novel porous gelatin-alginate scaffolds. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 3: 601-614.
180.
Yeatts, A.B., J.P. Fisher (2011) Bone tissue engineering bioreactors: dynamic culture and the influence of shear stress. Bone 48: 171-181.
181.
Yellowley, C. (2013) CXCL12/CXCR4 signaling and other recruitment and homing pathways in fracture repair. Bonekey Rep 2: 34.
182.
Yim, E.K., E.M. Darling, K. Kulangara, F. Guilak, K.W. Leong (2010) Nanotopography-induced changes in focal adhesions, cytoskeletal organization, and mechanical properties of human mesenchymal stem cells. Biomaterials 31: 1299-1306.
183.
Young, H.E., L. Hyer, A.C. Black, J.S. Robinson (2014) Adult stem cells: from bench-top to bedside; in Liu, Q. (ed): Tissue Regeneration: Where Nano-Structure Meets Biology. Singapore, World Scientific, pp 1-59.
184.
Zeng, Y., X. Qu, H. Li, S. Huang, S. Wang, Q. Xu, R. Lin, Q. Han, J. Li, R.C. Zhao (2012) MicroRNA-100 regulates osteogenic differentiation of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells by targeting BMPR2. FEBS Lett 586: 2375-2381.
185.
Zhang, Y., N. Cheng, R. Miron, B. Shi, X. Cheng (2012) Delivery of PDGF-B and BMP-7 by mesoporous bioglass/silk fibrin scaffolds for the repair of osteoporotic defects. Biomaterials 33: 6698-6708.
186.
Zhang, Y., L. Xia, D. Zhai, M. Shi, Y. Luo, C. Feng, B. Fang, J. Yin, J. Chang, C. Wu (2015) Mesoporous bioactive glass nanolayer-functionalized 3D-printed scaffolds for accelerating osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Nanoscale 7: 19207-19221.
187.
Zhao, Q., H. Ren, Z. Han (2016) Mesenchymal stem cells: immunomodulatory capability and clinical potential in immune diseases. J Cell Immunother 2: 3-20.
188.
Zomorodian, E., M. Baghaban Eslaminejad (2012) Mesenchymal stem cells as a potent cell source for bone regeneration. Stem Cells Int 2012: 9.
189.
Zuk, P.A. (2008) Tissue engineering craniofacial defects with adult stem cells? Are we ready yet? Pediatr Res 63: 478-486.
190.
Zuk, P.A., M. Zhu, P. Ashjian, D.A. De Ugarte, J.I. Huang, H. Mizuno, Z.C. Alfonso, J.K. Fraser, P. Benhaim, M.H. Hedrick (2002) Human adipose tissue is a source of multipotent stem cells. Mol Biol Cell 13: 4279-4295.
191.
Zwingenberger, S., Z. Yao, A. Jacobi, C. Vater, R.D. Valladares, C. Li, C. Nich, A.J. Rao, J.E. Christman, J.K. Antonios, E. Gibon, A. Schambach, T. Maetzig, S.B. Goodman, M. Stiehler (2014) Enhancement of BMP-2 induced bone regeneration by SDF-1alpha mediated stem cell recruitment. Tissue Eng Part A 20: 810-818.
You do not currently have access to this content.