... Abstract Macular edema is the swelling of the central portion of the human retina and it is associated with increased retinal thickness. It can be simply defined as an excess of fluid within the retinal tissue. It must be realized that the normal retina possesses a functional extracellular...

... Abstract Current indications for pars plana vitrectomy in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) include vitreous hemorrhage, tractional retinal detachment (TRD), combined tractional and rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (CTRRD), diabetic macular edema associated with posterior...

... Abstract The blood-retinal barrier (BRB) consists of inner and outer components (inner BRB and outer BRB) and plays by itself a fundamental role in the microenvironment of the retina. The presence of tight junctions (zonulae occludentes) between neighbouring retinal endothelial cells...

... Abstract Müller glial cells are known to play a very important role in retinal homeostasis, and many metabolic functions have been ascribed to these cells not only in the normal but in the diseased retina. This chapter addresses a wide variety of activities attributed to Müller glial cells...

... Abstract The optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) features of retinal artery and retinal vein occlusion are described and correlated to findings on clinical examination, fluorescein angiography, and structural OCT findings. There may be a differential in the distribution of reduced...

... Abstract Inherited retinal dystrophies comprise a group of heterogeneous disorders which share progressive loss of photoreceptor function accompanied by visual loss. Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and Stargardt disease (STGD) are two of the most common retinal dystrophies. Although many factors...

... similarities with the brain, and retinal microvascular changes may reflect the status of the cerebral circulation. Previous literature has identified a spectrum of retinal vascular changes in both DM and dementia, including retinopathy lesions, changes in retinal vessel calibres and alterations of retinal...

...-aided analysis, wider retinal venules and narrower arterioles were found to be associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). For chronic kidney disease, narrower retinal arteriolar calibre, smaller retinal vascular fractal dimensions, arteriovenous nicking and opacification were...

... been used both in clinical practice and as outcome measures in multicenter randomized controlled clinical trials. The features identified on OCT are used for the diagnosis, monitoring of disease activity, and assessing response to treatment. Quantitative features measured using OCT include retinal...

... Abstract Retinal vein occlusion is an obstruction of the retinal venous system by thrombus formation. It is the second most common retinal vascular disease after diabetic retinopathy affecting nearly 16 million adults. Careful diagnosis, categorization, and treatment may minimize permanent...

... Abstract The vitreoretinal interface is known to play a role in the pathogenesis of many retinal diseases. This chapter will discuss the properties of the vitreoretinal interface, the macular conditions caused by abnormalities of this interface, their characteristic presentation on optical...

... of availability of cost effective simplified retinal imaging tools has limited the diabetic retinopathy screening program in many parts of the world in last few decades. This has led to the development of innovative ideas and availability of cost effective simplified retinal imaging tools. In this chapter we...

... Abstract Retinal vein occlusions (RVOs) have been defined as retinal vascular disorders characterized by dilatation of retinal veins with retinal and subretinal hemorrhages, macular edema, and a varying degree of retinal ischemia. Retinal angiography, either as fluorescein and indocyanine green...

... Abstract The majority of retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) tumors are considered to be congenital and benign. They are classified as either congenital hypertrophy of the RPE (CHRPE) or RPE hamartoma. CHRPE most frequently presents as an isolated, flat, darkly pigmented and well-delineated fundus...

... Abstract The optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) microvascular features of branch and central retinal artery occlusion are described and correlated with fluorescein angiographic and clinical findings. There may be differences in the distribution of reduced vascular perfusion/flow...

... Abstract Retinal vein occlusion is the second most common cause of retinal vascular disease after diabetic retinopathy and is a frequent cause of significant vision loss and associated morbidity. Currently, fluorescein angiography is the gold standard for imaging of the retinal and choroidal...