... of observations lead us to propose that leptin also had significant effects on humantype I proinflammatory immune responses. In support of this hypothesis, leptin deficientmice are resistant to a wide range of autoimmune diseases and display features of immunedeficiency. Subsequent work has confirmed that leptin...

... depressed suicide victims and 20 adult NC subjects. We found that the protein and mRNA expression of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 were significantly higher in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). We also found that the protein and mRNA expression of TLRs...

... proinflammatory function in response to repeated infectious insults - a concept known as “innate immune memory.” In turn, we hypothesize that microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the brain, are also capable of retaining long-term memory of infectious and noninfectious insults, including stress...

... and age-associated diseases. Several factors contribute to inflammaging, including polymorphisms in the promoter regions of proinflammatory genes, chronic stimulation of immune cells with viruses such as cytomegalovirus, changes in the gut microbiome, and increased permeability from the intestine...

...) and associated with failure of extrahepatic organs. The pathophysiology of ACLF is still poorly understood. However, data have been obtained in the context of bacterial infections which induce hyper-production of proinflammatory cytokines. This ‘cytokine storm’ plays a central role in the development of multi...

..., prostaglandins, leukotrienes, vasopressors, platelet activation products, and complement induces vascular damage and vessel thrombosis. Then, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) induces cell apoptosis, and, finally, sequestered leukocytes in the burn tissues release proinflammatory mediators, thus fueling...

..., which is a circulating proinflammatory protein, might be a strong mediator for the development of DKD and a good predictive biomarker of its progression. The need for effective and safe treatment options for complications such as DKD or CVD becomes ever more urgent. Key Messages: Inflammatory...

... oxidative stress that then activates the synthesis and secretion of proinflammatory factors and vasoconstrictive substances, and diminishes the bioavailability of nitric oxide produced by eNOS. Uric acid also induces proliferation, senescence, and fat accumulation or inhibits insulin secretion, depending...

... and antidepressants is illustrated in figure 2 . Fig. 2 Bidirectional connections between stress, brain and inflammatory cytokines. Afferent pathways: central and peripheral macrophages/microglia are activated by stress, pain and depression. Efferent pathways: glucocorticoids and proinflammatory cytokines...

... elevated levels of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, interferon gamma-inducible protein 10, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1, macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha, and tumor necrosis factor alpha [ 6 ]. Similar to the reports...

... dysfunction in late life as a consequence of prolonged, low-grade inflammation in the course of depressive episodes. As chronic inflammation is known to precipitate increased apoptosis of neurons and astrocytes, this could be a contributing factor to brain dysfunction. In addition, certain proinflammatory...

... Abstract Endotoxin, or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), is a constituent of the outer cell membrane ofGram-negative bacteria. LPS is a highly potent proinflammatory substance, that, wheninhaled, dose-dependently causes fever, chills, and bronchoconstriction. These symptoms areaccompanied...

... shown for mixtures as well as individual HMOs, although effects seem to be cell-line and HMO-type specific. Mixtures of HMOs, and especially 2′FL, increase intestinal cell integrity, after challenge with proinflammatory cytokines and 2′FL as well as 3FL stimulate the development of intestinal epithelial...

... produced by T cells, NKT and NK cells enhances innate activation. In addition, CD1d and CD39 activate NKT and NK cells, respectively. The activation cascade progresses via positive and negative regulatory loops. Proinflammatory microenvironment further activates and recruits immune cells to promote...

... and IL-22 activate keratinocyte innate immune defenses, thus protecting the skin from pathogen invasion. However, Th17 and Th22 differ in their proinflammatory functions, being prominent in the first T cell subset and occasional/opportunistic in the second T cell subset. Most of the proinflammatory...

... epithelial cell (PTEC) assumes a proinflammatory and profibrotic role during proteinuria in which the PTEC expresses a variety of chemokines and injury signals that culminate in progressive interstitial inflammation and fibrosis. During diabetes, other substrates including advanced glycation end products...

... that the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is a major mediator of renal injury. Angiotensin II (Ang II), traditionally playing a central role as a mediator of glomerular hemodynamic adaptation and injury, is now recognized to exert proinflammatory action leading to upregulation of chemokines, adhesion molecules...

..., including stimulating the expression of epithelial adhesion molecules, increasing vascular permeability, and supporting leukocyte trafficking through chemotactic signaling. Proinflammatory cytokines also enter the peripheral circulatory system and are involved in signaling a systemic inflammatory response...