... extent. Postnatally, we have succeeded in improving the nitrogen balance in preterm infants, but the preconditions need also to be improved before concluding that today's policy is optimal. Only by gaining more knowledge on both fetal and neonatal physiology and disease will we be able to further...

... of these infants, but because of the extreme heterogeneity of the preterm population, they marginalize others. Helpful scoring programs are now available to identify malnutrition in populations of preterm infants using defined indicators. However, similar to growth curves, they do not provide proactive guidance...

... Abstract Approaches to enteral feeding significantly preterm infants’ impact short-term outcomes including survival, late-onset sepsis (LOS), and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and neurodevelopmental and later health outcomes. Clinical practice and trial data are dominated by short-term...

... Abstract Recommendations for nutrition of very preterm and very low birth weight infants have developed over time with our understanding of the requirements of preterm babies and the awareness of widespread poor postnatal growth. In general, the trend has been towards enhancing nutrition...

... Abstract The last 20 years have seen dramatic improvements in survival for preterm infants in both high- and low-income settings. Survival rates of over 50% in infants born 16 weeks early (24 weeks’ gestation) are now commonplace in well-resourced neonatal intensive care units. However...

... Abstract In preterm infants, the key goals of nutrition are to establish adequate growth and to contribute to appropriate neurodevelopmental outcome. In this context, the postdischarge period is crucial to establish catch-up growth and avoid wrong metabolic programming caused by overfeeding...

... Abstract Mother’s own milk is universally recognized as the optimal source of nutrition for preterm infants, although most authorities agree a multi-nutrient fortifier must be added in order to support nutrient accretion at a rate comparable to in utero. Nevertheless, many preterm infants face...

... Abstract For preterm and small-for-gestational age infants on enteral nutrition, the best solution is to add human milk fortifier (HMF) to human milk (HM) which is provided by the mother or a milk bank. HMF provides a means to add additional protein, energy, and micronutrients, while...

... Abstract Infants born very preterm miss out on the in utero transfer of the omega-3 and omega-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids that occurs during the third trimester. A number of studies have explored the impact of increasing the enteral intakes of omega-3 +/– omega-6 long-chain...

... Abstract Deficiency or excess of specific micronutrients is common in preterm infants and can have many effects on health outcomes, ranging from life-threatening electrolyte disturbances to long-term effects on growth, brain development, bone health, and the risk of retinopathy of prematurity...

... are widely used in the United States. They have the advantage to be completely sterile, and another benefit is easier mixing. The main downside of liquid fortifiers is their volume replacement of HM (about 16.7%). The recommendations on the amounts of enteral protein needed by preterm infants (3.5–4.5 g/kg...

..., Bifidobacterium spp. are the primary bacterium used in probiotic supplements, owing to their association with positive outcomes in cohort studies and range of beneficial properties in mechanistic experiments. Preterm infants born <32 weeks’ gestation encounter an unnatural beginning to life, with housing...

... Growth Early nutrition Human milk Standardized feeding protocol Key Messages Most preterm infants are appropriate for gestational age at birth but experience postnatal growth faltering. A combined approach of early enteral and parenteral nutrition is necessary to optimize...

... Human milk fortifier Growth faltering Post-discharge formula Complementary feeding Protein energy ratio Key Messages Very preterm infants discharged from hospital with a bodyweight of around 1,800–2,000 g have markedly higher nutrient needs than infants born at term...

... Improvements in perinatal and neonatal care have markedly increased the survival of premature infants during the last two decades, in particular of infants born very preterm or extremely preterm. Accordingly, the attention of both families and medical caregivers has increasingly shifted from...

...Key Messages Meeting physiological nutrient requirements should maintain normal health and development. In preterm infants, a lack of conclusive data results in considerable uncertainty on the acceptable range of nutrient intakes. Introduction Meeting the nutritional needs...