... extent. Postnatally, we have succeeded in improving the nitrogen balance in preterm infants, but the preconditions need also to be improved before concluding that today's policy is optimal. Only by gaining more knowledge on both fetal and neonatal physiology and disease will we be able to further...

... Abstract “Hidden Hunger” refers to micronutrient deficiencies that are not necessarily reflected in anthropometric measurements and thus remain hidden. It affects 2 billion people globally, and occurs among infants and young children on a “healthy diet,” as perceived by family members. Hidden...

... Abstract Approaches to enteral feeding significantly preterm infants’ impact short-term outcomes including survival, late-onset sepsis (LOS), and necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), and neurodevelopmental and later health outcomes. Clinical practice and trial data are dominated by short-term...

... Abstract The last 20 years have seen dramatic improvements in survival for preterm infants in both high- and low-income settings. Survival rates of over 50% in infants born 16 weeks early (24 weeks’ gestation) are now commonplace in well-resourced neonatal intensive care units. However...

... Abstract In preterm infants, the key goals of nutrition are to establish adequate growth and to contribute to appropriate neurodevelopmental outcome. In this context, the postdischarge period is crucial to establish catch-up growth and avoid wrong metabolic programming caused by overfeeding...

... Abstract Mother’s own milk is universally recognized as the optimal source of nutrition for preterm infants, although most authorities agree a multi-nutrient fortifier must be added in order to support nutrient accretion at a rate comparable to in utero. Nevertheless, many preterm infants face...

... Abstract For preterm and small-for-gestational age infants on enteral nutrition, the best solution is to add human milk fortifier (HMF) to human milk (HM) which is provided by the mother or a milk bank. HMF provides a means to add additional protein, energy, and micronutrients, while...

... Abstract Deficiency or excess of specific micronutrients is common in preterm infants and can have many effects on health outcomes, ranging from life-threatening electrolyte disturbances to long-term effects on growth, brain development, bone health, and the risk of retinopathy of prematurity...

... are widely used in the United States. They have the advantage to be completely sterile, and another benefit is easier mixing. The main downside of liquid fortifiers is their volume replacement of HM (about 16.7%). The recommendations on the amounts of enteral protein needed by preterm infants (3.5–4.5 g/kg...

... Abstract Birth represents the start of an incredible journey for the individual and the microbes which reside within and upon them. This interaction between human and microbe is essential for healthy development. Term infants are colonized by bacteria at birth, and thereafter the diet...

... in composition between breast milk and infant formula. Currently, progress in biotechnology allows the production of selected HMOs such as 2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL) and lacto- N -neotetraose (LNnT), which are increasingly being added to infant formulas to narrow the difference between breast milk and formula...

... Abstract Gut microbiota plays an important role in infants’ health. The prevalence of bifidobacteria in the gastrointestinal tract of term breastfed infants has been associated with reduced infection rates compared with formula-fed infants. However, few studies evaluated microbiota in premature...

... The health of very low birth weight infants is often challenged by immature tissues and organ systems including the gut and immune system paired with an unusual environment of a premature extrauterine life. Preterm birth comes with premature exposure to microbes that start to colonize...

... Growth Early nutrition Human milk Standardized feeding protocol Key Messages Most preterm infants are appropriate for gestational age at birth but experience postnatal growth faltering. A combined approach of early enteral and parenteral nutrition is necessary to optimize...

... Human milk fortifier Growth faltering Post-discharge formula Complementary feeding Protein energy ratio Key Messages Very preterm infants discharged from hospital with a bodyweight of around 1,800–2,000 g have markedly higher nutrient needs than infants born at term...

... status is predictive of infant growth restriction at birth; commonly, environmental factors linked to poverty are related to FGR. Some of the causes are high parity, malnutrition, teenage pregnancy, low maternal education, lower level of medical controls during pregnancy, sexually transmitted illnesses...