Identification of genetic and molecular factors responsible for the specialized cognitive abilities of humans is expected to provide important insights into the mechanisms responsible for disorders of cognition such as autism, schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Here, we discuss the use of comparative genomics for identifying salient genes and gene networks that may underlie cognition. We focus on the comparison of human and non-human primate brain gene expression and the utility of building gene coexpression networks for prioritizing hundreds of genes that differ in expression among the species queried. We also discuss the importance of and methods for functional studies of the individual genes identified. Together, this integration of comparative genomics with cellular and animal models should provide improved systems for developing effective therapeutics for disorders of cognition.

Keywords:
Human brain evolution, FOXP2, Autism, Autism spectrum disorder, Cognitive diseases, Cognition, Comparative genomics, Weighted gene coexpression network analysis
1.
Allman J, Tetreault NA, Hakeem AY, Manaye KF, Semendeferi K, Erwin JM, Park S, Goubert V, Hof PR (2010): The von Economo neurons in frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex in great apes and humans. Brain Struct Funct 214:495-517.
2.
American Psychiatric Association (2000): Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 4, text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Arlington, APA.
3.
American Psychiatric Association (2013): Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, ed 5 (DSM-5). Arlington, APA.
4.
Bacon C, Rappold GA (2012): The distinct and overlapping phenotypic spectra of FOXP1 and FOXP2 in cognitive disorders. Hum Genet 131:1687-1698.
5.
Baird G, Simonoff E, Pickles A, Chandler S, Loucas T, Meldrum D, Charman T (2006): Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP). Lancet 368:210-215.
6.
Ballesteros-Yáñez I, Benavides-Piccione R, Elston GN, Yuste R, DeFelipe J (2006): Density and morphology of dendritic spines in mouse neocortex. Neuroscience 138:403-409.
7.
Becker EB, Stoodley CJ (2013): Autism spectrum disorder and the cerebellum. Int Rev Neurobiol 113:1-34.
8.
Berg JM, Geschwind DH (2012): Autism genetics: searching for specificity and convergence. Genome Biol 13:247.
9.
Bianchi S, Stimpson CD, Bauernfeind AL, Schapiro SJ, Baze WB, McArthur MJ, Bronson E, Hopkins WD, Semendeferi K, Jacobs B, Hof PR, Sherwood CC (2013): Dendritic morphology of pyramidal neurons in the chimpanzee neocortex: regional specializations and comparison to humans. Cereb Cortex 23:2429-2436.
10.
Bowers JM, Konopka G (2012): The role of the FOXP family of transcription factors in ASD. Dis Markers 33:251-260.
11.
Bruner E, Jacobs HI (2013): Alzheimer's disease: the downside of a highly evolved parietal lobe? J Alzheimers Dis 35:227-240.
12.
Buckner RL, Krienen FM (2013): The evolution of distributed association networks in the human brain. Trends Cogn Sci 17:648-665.
13.
Campbell P, Reep RL, Stoll ML, Ophir AG, Phelps SM (2009): Conservation and diversity of Foxp2 expression in muroid rodents: functional implications. J Comp Neurol 512:84-100.
14.
Chakrabarti S, Fombonne E (2001): Pervasive developmental disorders in preschool children. JAMA 285:3093-3099.
15.
Charrier C, Joshi K, Coutinho-Budd J, Kim JE, Lambert N, de Marchena J, Jin WL, Vanderhaeghen P, Ghosh A, Sassa T, Polleux F (2012): Inhibition of SRGAP2 function by its human-specific paralogs induces neoteny during spine maturation. Cell 149:923-935.
16.
Chen C, Cheng L, Grennan K, Pibiri F, Zhang C, Badner JA, Gershon ES, Liu C (2013): Two gene co-expression modules differentiate psychotics and controls. Mol Psychiatry 18:1308-1314.
17.
Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium (2005): Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome. Nature 437:69-87.
18.
Chiu YC, Li MY, Liu YH, Ding JY, Yu JY, Wang TW (2014): Foxp2 regulates neuronal differentiation and neuronal subtype specification. Dev Neurobiol 74:723-728.
19.
Coque L, Mukherjee S, Cao JL, Spencer S, Marvin M, Falcon E, Sidor MM, Birnbaum SG, Graham A, Neve RL, Gordon E, Ozburn AR, Goldberg MS, Han MH, Cooper DC, McClung CA (2011): Specific role of VTA dopamine neuronal firing rates and morphology in the reversal of anxiety-related, but not depression-related behavior in the ClockΔ19 mouse model of mania. Neuropsychopharmacology 36:1478-1488.
20.
Crawley JN (2012): Translational animal models of autism and neurodevelopmental disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 14:293-305.
21.
Crespi B, Summers K, Dorus S (2007): Adaptive evolution of genes underlying schizophrenia. Proc Biol Sci 274:2801-2810.
22.
Crow TJ (2000): Schizophrenia as the price that homo sapiens pays for language: a resolution of the central paradox in the origin of the species. Brain Res Brain Res Rev 31:118-129.
23.
Crow TJ (2008): The ‘big bang' theory of the origin of psychosis and the faculty of language. Schizophr Res 102:31-52.
24.
Dennis MY, Nuttle X, Sudmant PH, Antonacci F, Graves TA, Nefedov M, Rosenfeld JA, Sajjadian S, Malig M, Kotkiewicz H, Curry CJ, Shafer S, Shaffer LG, de Jong PJ, Wilson RK, Eichler EE (2012): Evolution of human-specific neural SRGAP2 genes by incomplete segmental duplication. Cell 149:912-922.
25.
Doody RS, Thomas RG, Farlow M, et al (2014): Phase 3 trials of solanezumab for mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 370:311-321.
26.
Duan H, Wearne SL, Rocher AB, Macedo A, Morrison JH, Hof PR (2003): Age-related dendritic and spine changes in corticocortically projecting neurons in macaque monkeys. Cereb Cortex 13:950-961.
27.
Dumontheil I, Burgess PW, Blakemore SJ (2008): Development of rostral prefrontal cortex and cognitive and behavioural disorders. Dev Med Child Neurol 50:168-181.
28.
Elsabbagh M, Divan G, Koh YJ, Kim YS, Kauchali S, Marcín C, Montiel-Nava C, Patel V, Paula CS, Wang C, Yasamy MT, Fombonne E (2012): Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Res 5:160-179.
29.
Elston GN, Benavides-Piccione R, DeFelipe J (2001): The pyramidal cell in cognition: a comparative study in human and monkey. J Neurosci 21:RC163.
30.
Enard W, Gehre S, Hammerschmidt K, et al (2009): A humanized version of Foxp2 affects cortico-basal ganglia circuits in mice. Cell 137:961-971.
31.
Enard W, Przeworski M, Fisher SE, Lai CS, Wiebe V, Kitano T, Monaco AP, Pääbo S (2002): Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language. Nature 418:869-872.
32.
Ferland RJ, Cherry TJ, Preware PO, Morrisey EE, Walsh CA (2003): Characterization of Foxp2 and Foxp1 mRNA and protein in the developing and mature brain. J Comp Neurol 460:266-279.
33.
Fernell E, Gillberg C (2010): Autism spectrum disorder diagnoses in Stockholm preschoolers. Res Dev Disabil 31:680-685.
34.
Fisher SE, Lai CS, Monaco AP (2003): Deciphering the genetic basis of speech and language disorders. Annu Rev Neurosci 26:57-80.
35.
Flavell SW, Cowan CW, Kim TK, Greer PL, Lin Y, Paradis S, Griffith EC, Hu LS, Chen C, Greenberg ME (2006): Activity-dependent regulation of MEF2 transcription factors suppresses excitatory synapse number. Science 311:1008-1012.
36.
Fombonne E (2005): Epidemiology of autistic disorder and other pervasive developmental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 66(suppl 10):3-8.
37.
Green RE, Krause J, Briggs AW, et al (2010): A draft sequence of the Neandertal genome. Science 328:710-722.
38.
Hansen DV, Lui JH, Parker PR, Kriegstein AR (2010): Neurogenic radial glia in the outer subventricular zone of human neocortex. Nature 464:554-561.
39.
Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ (2006): Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory. Annu Rev Neurosci 29:565-598.
40.
Johnson MB, Kawasawa YI, Mason CE, Krsnik Z, Coppola G, Bogdanovic D, Geschwind DH, Mane SM, State MW, Sestan N (2009): Functional and evolutionary insights into human brain development through global transcriptome analysis. Neuron 62:494-509.
41.
Kang HJ, Kawasawa YI, Cheng F, Zhu Y, Xu X, Li M, Sousa AM, Pletikos M, Meyer KA, Sedmak G, Guennel T, Shin Y, Johnson MB, Krsnik Z, Mayer S, Fertuzinhos S, Umlauf S, Lisgo SN, Vortmeyer A, Weinberger DR, Mane S, Hyde TM, Huttner A, Reimers M, Kleinman JE, Sestan N (2011): Spatio-temporal transcriptome of the human brain. Nature 478:483-489.
42.
Kelleher RJ 3rd, Bear MF (2008): The autistic neuron: troubled translation? Cell 135:401-406.
43.
Khaitovich P, Enard W, Lachmann M, Pääbo S (2006): Evolution of primate gene expression. Nat Rev Genet 7:693-702.
44.
Kim YS, State MW (2014): Recent challenges to the psychiatric diagnostic nosology: a focus on the genetics and genomics of neurodevelopmental disorders. Int J Epidemiol 43:465-475.
45.
King BH, Lord C (2011): Is schizophrenia on the autism spectrum? Brain Res 1380:34-41.
46.
King MC, Wilson AC (1975): Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees. Science 188:107-116.
47.
Konopka G, Bomar JM, Winden K, Coppola G, Jonsson ZO, Gao F, Peng S, Preuss TM, Wohlschlegel JA, Geschwind DH (2009): Human-specific transcriptional regulation of CNS development genes by FOXP2. Nature 462:213-217.
48.
Konopka G, Friedrich T, Davis-Turak J, Winden K, Oldham MC, Gao F, Chen L, Wang GZ, Luo R, Preuss TM, Geschwind DH (2012b): Human-specific transcriptional networks in the brain. Neuron 75:601-617.
49.
Konopka G, Geschwind DH (2010): Human brain evolution: harnessing the genomics (r)evolution to link genes, cognition, and behavior. Neuron 68:231-244.
50.
Konopka G, Wexler E, Rosen E, Mukamel Z, Osborn GE, Chen L, Lu D, Gao F, Gao K, Lowe JK, Geschwind DH (2012a): Modeling the functional genomics of autism using human neurons. Mol Psychiatry 17:202-214.
51.
Krause J, Lalueza-Fox C, Orlando L, Enard W, Green RE, Burbano HA, Hublin JJ, Hänni C, Fortea J, de la Rasilla M, Bertranpetit J, Rosas A, Pääbo S (2007): The derived FOXP2 variant of modern humans was shared with Neandertals. Curr Biol 17:1908-1912.
52.
Krumm N, O'Roak BJ, Shendure J, Eichler EE (2014): A de novo convergence of autism genetics and molecular neuroscience. Trends Neurosci 37:95-105.
53.
Lai CS, Fisher SE, Hurst JA, Vargha-Khadem F, Monaco AP (2001): A forkhead-domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder. Nature 413:519-523.
54.
Lepp S, Anderson A, Konopka G (2013): Connecting signaling pathways underlying communication to ASD vulnerability. Int Rev Neurobiol 113:97-133.
55.
Li G, Wang J, Rossiter SJ, Jones G, Zhang S (2007): Accelerated FoxP2 evolution in echolocating bats. PLoS One 2:e900.
56.
Li Q, Bian S, Liu B, Hong J, Toth M, Sun T (2013): Establishing brain functional laterality in adult mice through unilateral gene manipulation in the embryonic cortex. Cell Res 23:1147-1149.
57.
Li S, Weidenfeld J, Morrisey EE (2004): Transcriptional and DNA binding activity of the Foxp1/2/4 family is modulated by heterotypic and homotypic protein interactions. Mol Cell Biol 24:809-822.
58.
Liu L, Lei J, Sanders SJ, Willsey AJ, Kou Y, Cicek AE, Klei L, Lu C, He X, Li M, Muhle RA, Ma'ayan A, Noonan JP, Sestan N, McFadden KA, State MW, Buxbaum JD, Devlin B, Roeder K (2014): DAWN: a framework to identify autism genes and subnetworks using gene expression and genetics. Mol Autism 5:22.
59.
Marchetto MC, Narvaiza I, Denli AM, Benner C, Lazzarini TA, Nathanson JL, Paquola AC, Desai KN, Herai RH, Weitzman MD, Yeo GW, Muotri AR, Gage FH (2013): Differential L1 regulation in pluripotent stem cells of humans and apes. Nature 503:525-529.
60.
Marcus GF, Fisher SE (2003): FOXP2 in focus: what can genes tell us about speech and language? Trends Cogn Sci 7:257-262.
61.
Maricic T, Günther V, Georgiev O, Gehre S, Curlin M, Schreiweis C, Naumann R, Burbano HA, Meyer M, Lalueza-Fox C, de la Rasilla M, Rosas A, Gajovic S, Kelso J, Enard W, Schaffner W, Pääbo S (2013): A recent evolutionary change affects a regulatory element in the human FOXP2 gene. Mol Biol Evol 30:844-852.
62.
Menet JS, Rosbash M (2011): When brain clocks lose track of time: cause or consequence of neuropsychiatric disorders. Curr Opin Neurobiol 21:849-857.
63.
Miller JA, Horvath S, Geschwind DH (2010): Divergence of human and mouse brain transcriptome highlights Alzheimer disease pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107:12698-12703.
64.
Miller JA, Oldham MC, Geschwind DH (2008): A systems level analysis of transcriptional changes in Alzheimer's disease and normal aging. J Neurosci 28:1410-1420.
65.
Money KM, Stanwood GD (2013): Developmental origins of brain disorders: roles for dopamine. Front Cell Neurosci 7:260.
66.
Mukamel Z, Konopka G, Wexler E, Osborn GE, Dong H, Bergman MY, Levitt P, Geschwind DH (2011): Regulation of MET by FOXP2, genes implicated in higher cognitive dysfunction and autism risk. J Neurosci 31:11437-11442.
67.
Murugan M, Harward S, Scharff C, Mooney R (2013): Diminished FoxP2 levels affect dopaminergic modulation of corticostriatal signaling important to song variability. Neuron 80:1464-1476.
68.
O'Bleness M, Searles VB, Varki A, Gagneux P, Sikela JM (2012): Evolution of genetic and genomic features unique to the human lineage. Nat Rev Genet 13:853-866.
69.
Oh SW, Harris JA, Ng L, et al (2014): A mesoscale connectome of the mouse brain. Nature 508:207-214.
70.
Oldham MC, Horvath S, Geschwind DH (2006): Conservation and evolution of gene coexpression networks in human and chimpanzee brains. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:17973-17978.
71.
Oldham MC, Konopka G, Iwamoto K, Langfelder P, Kato T, Horvath S, Geschwind DH (2008): Functional organization of the transcriptome in human brain. Nat Neurosci 11:1271-1282.
72.
Parikshak NN, Luo R, Zhang A, Won H, Lowe JK, Chandran V, Horvath S, Geschwind DH (2013): Integrative functional genomic analyses implicate specific molecular pathways and circuits in autism. Cell 155:1008-1021.
73.
Pletikos M, Sousa AM, Sedmak G, Meyer KA, Zhu Y, Cheng F, Li M, Kawasawa YI, Sestan N (2014): Temporal specification and bilaterality of human neocortical topographic gene expression. Neuron 81:321-332.
74.
Preuss TM, Cáceres M, Oldham MC, Geschwind DH (2004): Human brain evolution: insights from microarrays. Nat Rev Genet 5:850-860.
75.
Raichlen DA, Alexander GE (2014): Exercise, APOE genotype, and the evolution of the human lifespan. Trends Neurosci 37:247-255.
76.
Reich D, Green RE, Kircher M, Krause J, Patterson N, Durand EY, Viola B, Briggs AW, Stenzel U, Johnson PL, Maricic T, Good JM, Marques-Bonet T, Alkan C, Fu Q, Mallick S, Li H, Meyer M, Eichler EE, Stoneking M, Richards M, Talamo S, Shunkov MV, Derevianko AP, Hublin JJ, Kelso J, Slatkin M, Pääbo S (2010): Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia. Nature 468:1053-1060.
77.
Robertson MM (2008): The prevalence and epidemiology of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Part 1: the epidemiological and prevalence studies. J Psychosom Res 65:461-472.
78.
Roll P, Rudolf G, Pereira S, et al (2006): SRPX2 mutations in disorders of language cortex and cognition. Hum Mol Genet 15:1195-1207.
79.
Roll P, Vernes SC, Bruneau N, Cillario J, Ponsole-Lenfant M, Massacrier A, Rudolf G, Khalife M, Hirsch E, Fisher SE, Szepetowski P (2010): Molecular networks implicated in speech-related disorders: FOXP2 regulates the SRPX2/uPAR complex. Hum Mol Genet 19:4848-4860.
80.
Rosen EY, Wexler EM, Versano R, Coppola G, Gao F, Winden KD, Oldham MC, Martens LH, Zhou P, Farese RV Jr, Geschwind DH (2011): Functional genomic analyses identify pathways dysregulated by progranulin deficiency, implicating Wnt signaling. Neuron 71:1030-1042.
81.
Roussos P, Katsel P, Davis KL, Siever LJ, Haroutunian V (2012): A system-level transcriptomic analysis of schizophrenia using postmortem brain tissue samples. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69:1205-1213.
82.
Russo SJ, Nestler EJ (2013): The brain reward circuitry in mood disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 14:609-625.
83.
Salloway S, Sperling R, Fox NC, et al (2014): Two phase 3 trials of bapineuzumab in mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 370:322-333.
84.
Sanders SJ, Murtha MT, Gupta AR, Murdoch JD, Raubeson MJ, Willsey AJ, Ercan-Sencicek AG, DiLullo NM, Parikshak NN, Stein JL, Walker MF, Ober GT, Teran NA, Song Y, El-Fishawy P, Murtha RC, Choi M, Overton JD, Bjornson RD, Carriero NJ, Meyer KA, Bilguvar K, Mane SM, Sestan N, Lifton RP, Günel M, Roeder K, Geschwind DH, Devlin B, State MW (2012): De novo mutations revealed by whole-exome sequencing are strongly associated with autism. Nature 485:237-241.
85.
Semendeferi K, Teffer K, Buxhoeveden DP, Park MS, Bludau S, Amunts K, Travis K, Buckwalter J (2011): Spatial organization of neurons in the frontal pole sets humans apart from great apes. Cereb Cortex 21:1485-1497.
86.
Seyfarth RM, Cheney DL (2013): Affiliation, empathy, and the origins of theory of mind. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110(suppl 2):10349-10356.
87.
Shettleworth SJ (2012): Modularity, comparative cognition and human uniqueness. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 367:2794-2802.
88.
Shu W, Cho JY, Jiang Y, Zhang M, Weisz D, Elder GA, Schmeidler J, De Gasperi R, Sosa MA, Rabidou D, Santucci AC, Perl D, Morrisey E, Buxbaum JD (2005): Altered ultrasonic vocalization in mice with a disruption in the Foxp2 gene. PNAS 102:9643-9648.
89.
Sia GM, Clem RL, Huganir RL (2013): The human language-associated gene SRPX2 regulates synapse formation and vocalization in mice. Science 342:987-991.
90.
Silverman JL, Yang M, Lord C, Crawley JN (2010): Behavioural phenotyping assays for mouse models of autism. Nat Rev Neurosci 11:490-502.
91.
Somel M, Liu X, Khaitovich P (2013): Human brain evolution: transcripts, metabolites and their regulators. Nat Rev Neurosci 14:112-127.
92.
Spiteri E, Konopka G, Coppola G, Bomar J, Oldham M, Ou J, Vernes SC, Fisher SE, Ren B, Geschwind DH (2007): Identification of the transcriptional targets of FOXP2, a gene linked to speech and language, in developing human brain. Am J Hum Genet 81:1144-1157.
93.
Tebbenkamp AT, Willsey AJ, State MW, Sestan N (2014): The developmental transcriptome of the human brain: implications for neurodevelopmental disorders. Curr Opin Neurol 27:149-156.
94.
Teffer K, Semendeferi K (2012): Human prefrontal cortex: evolution, development, and pathology. Prog Brain Res 195:191-218.
95.
Telese F, Gamliel A, Skowronska-Krawczyk D, Garcia-Bassets I, Rosenfeld MG (2013): ‘Seq-ing' insights into the epigenetics of neuronal gene regulation. Neuron 77:606-623.
96.
Tettamanti M, Moro A, Messa C, Moresco RM, Rizzo G, Carpinelli A, Matarrese M, Fazio F, Perani D (2005): Basal ganglia and language: phonology modulates dopaminergic release. Neuroreport 16:397-401.
97.
Torkamani A, Dean B, Schork NJ, Thomas EA (2010): Coexpression network analysis of neural tissue reveals perturbations in developmental processes in schizophrenia. Genome Res 20:403-412.
98.
Toro R, Konyukh M, Delorme R, Leblond C, Chaste P, Fauchereau F, Coleman M, Leboyer M, Gillberg C, Bourgeron T (2010): Key role for gene dosage and synaptic homeostasis in autism spectrum disorders. Trends Genet 26:363-372.
99.
Tsui D, Vessey JP, Tomita H, Kaplan DR, Miller FD (2013): FoxP2 regulates neurogenesis during embryonic cortical development. J Neurosci 33:244-258.
100.
Ullman MT (2001): A neurocognitive perspective on language: the declarative/procedural model. Nat Rev Neurosci 2:717-726.
101.
Vargha-Khadem F, Gadian DG, Copp A, Mishkin M (2005): FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:131-138.
102.
Varki A, Altheide TK (2005): Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack. Genome Res 15:1746-1758.
103.
Vernes SC, Newbury DF, Abrahams BS, Winchester L, Nicod J, Groszer M, Alarcón M, Oliver PL, Davies KE, Geschwind DH, Monaco AP, Fisher SE (2008): A functional genetic link between distinct developmental language disorders. N Engl J Med 359:2337-2345.
104.
Vernes SC, Oliver PL, Spiteri E, Lockstone HE, Puliyadi R, Taylor JM, Ho J, Mombereau C, Brewer A, Lowy E, Nicod J, Groszer M, Baban D, Sahgal N, Cazier JB, Ragoussis J, Davies KE, Geschwind DH, Fisher SE (2011): Foxp2 regulates gene networks implicated in neurite outgrowth in the developing brain. PLoS Genet 7:e1002145.
105.
Voineagu I, Wang X, Johnston P, Lowe JK, Tian Y, Horvath S, Mill J, Cantor RM, Blencowe BJ, Geschwind DH (2011): Transcriptomic analysis of autistic brain reveals convergent molecular pathology. Nature 474:380-384.
106.
Werling DM, Geschwind DH (2013): Sex differences in autism spectrum disorders. Curr Opin Neurol 26:146-153.
107.
Willsey AJ, Sanders SJ, Li M, Dong S, Tebbenkamp AT, Muhle RA, Reilly SK, Lin L, Fertuzinhos S, Miller JA, Murtha MT, Bichsel C, Niu W, Cotney J, Ercan-Sencicek AG, Gockley J, Gupta AR, Han W, He X, Hoffman EJ, Klei L, Lei J, Liu W, Liu L, Lu C, Xu X, Zhu Y, Mane SM, Lein ES, Wei L, Noonan JP, Roeder K, Devlin B, Sestan N, State MW (2013): Coexpression networks implicate human midfetal deep cortical projection neurons in the pathogenesis of autism. Cell 155:997-1007.
108.
Wunderlich S, Kircher M, Vieth B, Haase A, Merkert S, Beier J, Göhring G, Glage S, Schambach A, Curnow EC, Pääbo S, Martin U, Enard W (2014): Primate iPS cells as tools for evolutionary analyses. Stem Cell Res 12:622-629.
109.
Zhang YE, Landback P, Vibranovski MD, Long M (2011): Accelerated recruitment of new brain development genes into the human genome. PLoS Biol 9:e1001179.
110.
Zhao W, Langfelder P, Fuller T, Dong J, Li A, Hovarth S (2010): Weighted gene coexpression network analysis: state of the art. J Biopharm Stat 20:281-300.
© 2014 S. Karger AG, Basel
2014
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.