Three interrelated pallial areas mediate behaviors reflective of the cognitive and emotional aspects of the teleost mind. The dorsocentral area (Dc) has specific associations with both of the other pallial areas and projects to major lower sensorimotor centers. While Dc generally functions as an output or modulatory component of the pallium, it probably also has integrative features important for certain behaviors. The dorsolateral region (Dl) has dorsal (Dld) and ventral (Dlv) divisions. In association with the dorsal part of Dc, Dld processes visual information via a ‘tectal loop' which is hypertrophied in certain coral reef species. The region also receives afferents related to other modalities. Functionally, Dld resembles the tetrapod sensory neocortex. Anatomical and behavioral data (i.e. involvement in spatial and temporal learning) strongly suggest that Dlv is homologous to the tetrapod hippocampus. The dorsal part of the dorsomedial area (Dmd) processes acoustic, lateral line, gustatory, and multimodal information. It has reciprocal connections with Dld such that the Dmd and Dld together can be considered the teleost nonolfactory ‘sensory pallium'. Behavioral studies indicate that Dmd creates the ‘fear' necessary for defense/escape and avoidance behaviors and controls several components of species-typical sexual and aggressive behavior (responsiveness, behavioral sequencing, and aspects of social cognition). While the functional results generally support the anatomical evidence that Dmd is homologous to the tetrapod amygdala, a case can also be made that Dmd has ‘sensory neocortex-like' features. Understanding the interrelationships of Dl, Dmd, and Dc seems a necessary ‘next step' in the identification of the neural processes responsible for mental experiences such as those of a unified sensory experience (Umwelt) or of feelings of discomfort versus well- being.

Keywords:
Pallium, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Cognition, Emotion, Mind, Behavior, Fish, Teleost, Sensory integration
1.
Ahrens MB, Li JM, Orger MB, Robson DN, Schier AF, Engert F, Portugues R (2012): Brain-wide neuronal dynamics during motor adaptation in zebrafish. Nature 485:471-477.
2.
Ahrens MB, Orger MB, Robson DN, Li JM, Keller PJ (2013): Whole-brain functional imaging at cellular resolution using light-sheet microscopy. Nat Methods DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.2434.
3.
Bannister LH (1973): Forebrain structure in Phoxinus phoxinus, a teleost of the cyprinid family. J Hirnforsch 14:413-433.
4.
Bass AH (1981a): Telencephalic efferents in the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus: projections to the olfactory bulb and optic tectum. Brain Behav Evol 19:1-16.
5.
Bass AH (1981b): Olfactory bulb efferents in the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. J Morph 169:91-111.
6.
Bauer DH, Demski LS (1980): Vertical banding evoked by electrical stimulation of the brain in anesthetized green sunfish, Lepomis cyanellus, and bluegills, Lepomis macrochirus. J Exp Biol 84:149-160.
7.
Bisazza A, Brown C (2011): Lateralization of cognitive functions in fish; in Brown C, Laland K, Krause J (eds): Fish Cognition and Behavior, ed 2. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, pp 298-324.
8.
Braford MR Jr (1995): Comparative aspects of forebrain organization in the ray-finned fishes: touchstones or not? Brain Behav Evol 46:259-274.
9.
Braford MR Jr (2009): Stalking the everted telencephalon: comparisons of forebrain organization in basal ray-finned fishes and teleosts. Brain Behav Evol 74:56-76.
10.
Braford MR Jr, Northcutt RG (1983): Organization of the diencephalon and pretectum of the ray-finned fishes; in Davis R, Northcutt RG (eds): Fish Neurobiology. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, vol 2, pp 117-164.
11.
Braithwaite V (2010) Do Fishes Feel Pain? Oxford, Oxford University Press.
12.
Braithwaite VA (2006): Cognitive ability in fish; in Solman KA, Wilson RW, Balshine S (eds): Behaviour and Physiology of Fish: Fish Physiology. Amsterdam, Elsevier, vol 24, pp 1-37.
13.
Braithwaite VA, Boulcott P (2007): Pain perception, aversion and fear in fish. Dis Aquat Org 75:131-138.
14.
Broglio C, Gómez A, Durán E, Salas C, Rodríguez F (2011): Brain and cognition in teleost fishes; in Brown C, Laland K, Krause J (eds): Fish Cognition and Behavior, ed 2. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, pp 325-358.
15.
Broglio C, Rodríguez F, Gómez A, Arias JC, Salas C (2010): Selective involvement of the goldfish lateral pallium in spatial memory. Behav Brain Res 210:191-201.
16.
Broom DM (2007): Cognitive ability and sentience: which aquatic animals should be protected? Dis Aquat Org 75:99-108.
17.
Brown C, Laland K, Krause J (2011): Fish Cognition and Behavior, ed 2. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell.
18.
Bshary R (2011): Machiavellian intelligence in fishes; in Brown C, Laland K, Krause J (eds): Fish Cognition and Behavior, ed 2. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, pp 277-291.
19.
Bshary R, Wickler W, Fricke H (2002): Fish cognition: a primate's eye view. Anim Cogn 5:1-13.
20.
Bullock TH (1993): How are more complex brains different? Brain Behav Evol 4:88-96.
21.
Bullock TH (2002): Grades in neural complexity: how large is the span? Integ Comp Biol 42:757-761.
22.
Burmeister SS, Munshi RG, Fernald RD (2009): Cytoarchitecture of a cichlid fish telencephalon. Brain Behav Evol 74:110-120.
23.
Castro A, Becerra M, Manso MJ, Anadón R (2003): Distribution and development of calretinin-like immunoreactivity in the telencephalon of the brown trout, Salmo trutta fario. J Comp Neurol 467:254-269.
24.
Chandroo KP, Duncan IJH, Moccia RD (2004): Can fish suffer? Perspectives on sentience, pain, fear and stress. Appl Anim Behav Sci 86:225-250.
25.
Corrêa SAL, Grant K, Hoffmann A (1998): Afferent and efferent connections of the dorsocentral telencephalon in an electrosensory teleost, Gymnotus carapo. Brain Behav Evol 52:81-98.
26.
Corrêa SAL, Hoffmann A (1999): Reciprocal connections between the preglomerular complex and the dorsolateral telencephalon in the weakly electric fish, Gymnotus carapo. Neurosci Lett 261:131-134.
27.
Costa SS, Andrade R, Carneiro LA, Gonçalves EJ, Kotrschal K, Oliveira RF (2011): Sex differences in the dorsolateral telencephalon correlate with home range size in blenniid fish. Brain Behav Evol 77:55-64.
28.
de Bruin JPC (1980): Telencephalon and behavior in teleosts fish: a neuroethological approach; in Ebbesson SOE (ed): Comparative Neurology of the Telencephalon. New York, Plenum Press, pp 175-201.
29.
de Bruin JPC (1983) Neural correlates of motivated behavior in teleost fish; in Ewert JP, Capranica RR, Ingle DJ (eds): Advances in Vertebrate Neuroethology. New York, Plenum Press, pp 969-995.
30.
Demski LS (1969): Behavioral effects of electrical stimulation of the brain in free-swimming bluegills, Lepomis macrochirus; doctoral dissertation, University of Rochester, New York.
31.
Demski LS (1978): Neuroanatomical substrates of reproductive behavior in male sunfish (genus Lepomis). Ann Biol Anim Bioch Biphy 18:831-836.
32.
Demski LS (1983): Behavioral effects of electrical stimulation of the brain; in Davis R, Northcutt RG (eds): Fish Neurobiology. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, vol 2, pp 317-359.
33.
Demski LS (1992): Chromatomotor systems in teleosts and cephalopods: a levels oriented analysis of convergent systems. Brain Behav Evol 40:141-156.
34.
Demski LS (2003): In a fish's mind's eye: the visual pallium of teleosts; in Collin SP, Marshall NJ (eds): Sensory Processing in Aquatic Environments. New York, Springer, pp 404-419.
35.
Demski LS, Bauer DH, Gerald JW (1975): Sperm release evoked by electrical stimulation of the fish brain: a functional-anatomical study. J Exp Zool 191:215-232.
36.
Demski LS, Beaver JA (2001): Brain and cognitive function in teleost fishes; in Roth G, Wullimann MF (eds): Brain, Evolution and Cognition. New York, Wiley, pp 297-332.
37.
Demski LS, Knigge KM (1971): The telencephalon and hypothalamus of the bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus): evoked feeding, aggressive and reproductive behavior with representative frontal sections. J Comp Neurol 143:1-16.
38.
Durán E, Ocaña FM, Broglio C, Rodríguez F, Salas C (2010): Lateral but not medial telencephalic pallium ablation impairs the use of goldfish spatial allocentric strategies in a ‘hole-board' task. Behav Brain Res 214:480-487.
39.
Echteler SM (1984): Connections of the auditory midbrain in a teleost fish, Cyprinus carpio. J Comp Neurol 230:536-551.
40.
Echteler SM (1985): Organization of central auditory pathways in a teleost fish, Cyprinus carpio. J Comp Physiol A 156:267-280.
41.
Echteler SM, Saidel WM (1981): Forebrain connections in the goldfish support telencephalic homologies with land vertebrates. Science 212:683-685.
42.
Fiebig E, Meyer DL, Ebbesson SOE (1985): Eye movements evoked from telencephalic stimulations in the piranha (Serrasalmus nattereri). Comp Biochem Physiol 81A:67-70.
43.
Finger TE (1980): Nonolfactory sensory pathway to the telencephalon in a teleost fish. Science 210:671-673.
44.
Folgueira M, Anadón R, Yáñez J (2004): Experimental study of the connections of the telencephalon in the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). 2. Dorsal area and preoptic region. J Comp Neurol 480:204-233.
45.
Friedlander MJ (1983): The visual prosencephalon of teleosts; in Davis R, Northcutt RG (eds): Fish Neurobiology. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, vol 2, pp 91-115.
46.
Grama A, Engert F (2012): Direction selectivity in the larval zebrafish tectum is mediated by asymmetric inhibition. Front Neural Circuits 59:1-9.
47.
Hallowitz RA, Woodward DJ, Demski LS (1971): Forebrain activation of single units in preoptic area of sunfish. Comp Biochem Physiol 40A:733-741.
48.
Herbsman DM, Beaver JA, Demski LS (2000): Distribution of GnRH, serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase and substance P-like immunoreactivity in the brain of squirrelfish, with particular regard to the hypertrophied telencephalic-tectal pathways (abstract 462.8). Soc Neurosci Abstr 26:1240.
49.
Hornby PJ, Demski LS (1988): Functional-anatomical studies on the neural control of heart rate in goldfish. Brain Behav Evol 31:181-192.
50.
Ishikawa Y, Yamamoto N, Yoshimoto M, Yasuda T, Maruyama K, Kage T, Takeda H, Ito H (2007): Developmental origin of diencephalic sensory relay nuclei in teleosts. Brain Behav Evol 69:87-95.
51.
Ito H, Ishikawa Y, Yoshimoto M, Yamamoto N (2007): Diversity of brain morphology in teleosts: brain and ecological niche. Brain Behav Evol 69:76-86.
52.
Ito H, Murakami T, Fukuoka T, Kishida R (1986): Thalamic fiber connections in a teleost (Sebastiscus marmoratus): visual, somatosensory, octavolateral, and cerebellar relay region to the telencephalon. J Comp Neurol 250:215-227.
53.
Ito H, Murakami T, Morita Y (1982): An indirect telencephalo-cerebellar pathway and its relay nucleus in teleosts. Brain Res 249:1-13.
54.
Kanwal JS, Finger TE, Caprio J (1988): Forebrain connections of the gustatory system in ictalurid catfishes. J Comp Neurol 278:353-376.
55.
Keenlyside MA (1979): Diversity and Adaptation in Fish Behavior. Berlin, Springer.
56.
Kotrschal K, van Staaden MJ, Huber R (1998): Fish brains: evolution and environmental relationships. Rev Fish Biol Fish 8:373-408.
57.
Lamb CF, Caprio J (1992): Convergence of oral and extraoral information in the superior secondary gustatory nucleus of the channel catfish. Brain Res 588:201-211.
58.
Laming PR (1987): Behavioral arousal and its habituation in the squirrel fish Holocentrus rufus: the role of the telencephalon. Behav Neural Biol 47:80-104.
59.
Laming PR, Savage GE (1980): Physiological changes observed in the goldfish (Carassius auratus) during behavioral arousal and fright. Behav Neural Biol 29:255-275.
60.
Lau BYB, Mathur P, Gould GG, Guo S (2011): Identification of a brain center whose activity discriminates a choice behavior in zebrafish. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108:2581-2586.
61.
Lee LT (1984): Response of the cerebellum to stimulation of the telencephalon in the catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus). J Neurophysiol 51:1394-1408.
62.
Lee LT, Bullock TH (1990a): Cerebellar units show several types of early responses to telencephalic stimulation in catfish. Brain Behav Evol 35:278-290.
63.
Lee LT, Bullock TH (1990b): Cerebellar units show several types of long-lasting posttetanic responses to telencephalic stimulation in catfish. Brain Behav Evol 35:291-301.
64.
Lee LT, Bullock TH (1990c): Responses of the optic tectum to telencephalic stimulation in catfish. Brain Res 220:51-65.
65.
Mahoney PJ (2001): The cytoarchitecture of the telencephalon of a cichlid fish: Cichlasoma cyanoguttatum; Baccalaureate Thesis, New College of Florida, Sarasota.
66.
Martín I, Gómez A, Salas C, Puerto A, Rodríguez F (2011): Dorsomedial pallium lesions impair taste aversion learning in goldfish. Neurobiol Learn Mem 96:297-305.
67.
Maximino C, Lima MG, Oliveira KRM, Batista Ede JO, Herculano AM (2013): ‘Limbic associative' and ‘autonomic' amygdala in teleosts: a review of the evidence. J Chem Neuroanat 48-49:1-13.
68.
Meek J, Nieuwenhuys R (1998): Holosteans and teleosts; in Nieuwenhuys R, ten Donkelaar HJ, Nicholson C (eds): The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates. New York, Springer, vol 2, pp 759-937.
69.
Mueller T, Dong Z, Berberoglu MA, Guo S (2011): The dorsal pallium in zebrafish, Danio rerio (Cyprinidae, Teleostei). Brain Res 138:95-105.
70.
Mueller T, Wullimann MF (2009): An evolutionary interpretation of teleostean forebrain anatomy. Brain Behav Evol 74:30-42.
71.
Murakami T, Fukuoka T, Ito H (1986a): Telencephalic ascending acousticolateral system in a teleost (Sebastiscus marmoratus), with special reference to the fiber connections of the nucleus preglomerulosus. J Comp Neurol 247:383-397.
72.
Murakami T, Ito H, Morita Y (1986b): Telencephalic afferent nuclei in the carp diencephalon, with special reference to fiber connections of the nucleus preglomerulosus pars lateralis. Brain Res 382:97-103.
73.
Murakami T, Morita Y, Ito H (1983): Extrinsic and intrinsic fiber connections of the telencephalon in a teleost, Sebastiscus marmoratus. J Comp Neurol 216:115-131.
74.
Nelson JS (2006): Fishes of the World, ed 4. New York, Wiley.
75.
Nieuwenhuys R (1959): The structure of the telencephalon of the teleost Gasterosteus aculeatus I and II. Proc K Ned Akad Wet Ser C 62:341-362.
76.
Northcutt RG (2006): Connections of the lateral and medial divisions of the goldfish telencephalic pallium. J Comp Neurol 494:903-943.
77.
Northcutt RG (2008): Forebrain evolution in bony fishes. Brain Res Bull 75:191-205.
78.
Northcutt RG (2011): Do teleost fishes possess a homolog of mammalian isocortex? Brain Behav Evol 78:136-138.
79.
Northcutt RG, Braford MR Jr (1980): New observations on the organization and evolution of the telencephalon of actinopterygian fishes; in Ebbesson SOE (ed): Comparative Neurology of the Telencephalon. New York, Plenum Press, pp 41-98.
80.
Oka Y, Matsushima T (1993): Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-immunoreactive terminal nerve cells have intrinsic rhythmicity and project widely in the brain. J Neurosci 13:2161-2176.
81.
Overmier JB, Hollis K (1990): Fish in the think tank: learning, memory and integrated behavior; in Kesner RP, Olton DS (eds): Neurobiology of Comparative Cognition. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp 205-236.
82.
Park PJ, Bell MA (2010): Variation of telencephalon morphology of the threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) in relation to inferred ecology. J Evol Biol 23:1261-1277.
83.
Paśko L (2010): Tool-like behavior in the sixbar wrasse, Thalassoma hardwicke (Bennett, 1830). Zoo Biol 29:767-773.
84.
Pitcher TJ (1993): Behaviour of Teleost Fishes, ed 2. London, Chapman and Hall.
85.
Pollen AA, Dobberfuhl AP, Scace J, Igulu MM, Renn SCP, Shumway CA, Hofmann HA (2007): Environmental complexity and social organization sculpt the brain in Lake Tanganyikan cichlid fish. Brain Behav Evol 70:21-39.
86.
Portugues R, Severi KE, Wyart C, Ahrens MB (2013): Optogenetics in a transparent animal: circuit function in the larval zebrafish. Curr Opin Neurobiol 23:119-126.
87.
Prechtl JC, von der Emde G, Wolfart J, Karamürsel S, Akoev GN, Andrianov YN, Bullock TH (1998): Sensory processing in the pallium of a mormyrid fish. J Neurosci 18:7381-7393.
88.
Quick IA, Laming PR (1988): Cardiac, ventilatory and behavioural arousal responses evoked by electrical brain stimulation in the goldfish (Carassius auratus). Physiol Behav 43:715-727.
89.
Reebs S (2001): Fish Behavior in the Aquarium and in the Wild. Ithaca, Cornell University Press.
90.
Ridet J-M, Bauchot R (1990): Analyse quantitative de l'encéphale des téléotéens: caractères évolutifs et adaptatifs de l'encéphalisation. 2. Les grandes subdivisions encéphaliques. J Hirnforsch 4:433-458.
91.
Rink E, Wullimann MF (1998): Some forebrain connections of the gustatory system in the goldfish Carassius auratus visualized by separate DiI application to the hypothalamic inferior lobe and the torus lateralis. J Comp Neurol 394:152-170.
92.
Rooney DJ, Laming PR (1986): Localization of telencephalic regions concerned with habituation of cardiac and ventilatory responses associated with arousal in the goldfish (Carassius auratus). Behav Neurosci 100:45-50.
93.
Saidel WM, Marquez-Houston K, Butler AB (2001): Identification of visual pallial telencephalon in the goldfish, Carassius auratus: a combined cytochrome oxidase and electrophysiological study. Brain Res 919:82-93.
94.
Savage GE (1971): Behavioural effects of electrical stimulation of the telencephalon of goldfish, Carassius auratus. Anim Behav 19:661-668.
95.
Savage GE, Wright DE (1981): Electrical stimulation of the telencephalon and learning in a teleost fish; in Laming PR (ed): Brain Mechanisms of Behaviour in Lower Vertebrates, Society for Experimental Biology Seminar Series 9. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 281-300.
96.
Scace J, Dobberfuhl A, Higgins E, Shumway C (2006): Complexity and the evolution of the social brain. InterJournal Complex Syst, No 1844.
97.
Schroeder DM (1980): The telencephalon of teleosts; in Ebbesson SOE (ed): Comparative Neurology of the Telencephalon. New York, Plenum Press, pp 99-115.
98.
Schuster S, Wo S, Griebsch M, Klostermeier I (2006): Animal cognition: how archer fish learn to down rapidly moving targets. Curr Biol 16:378-383.
99.
Segaar J (1965): Behavioral aspects of degeneration and regeneration in fish brain: a comparison with higher vertebrates. Prog Brain Res 14:143-231.
100.
Segaar J, Nieuwenhuys R (1963): New etho-physiological experiments with male Gasterosteus aculeatus with anatomical comment. Anim Behav 11:331-344.
101.
Sheldon RE (1912): The olfactory tracts and centers in teleosts. J Comp Neurol 22:177-339.
102.
Shimizu M, Yamamoto N, Yoshimoto M, Ito H (1999): Fiber connections of the inferior lobe in a percomorph teleost, Thamnaconus (Navodon) modestus. Brain Behav Evol 54:127-146.
103.
Shumaker RW, Walkup KR, Beck BB (2011): Animal Tool Behavior: the Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals, revised and updated ed. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
104.
Shumway CA (2008): Habitat complexity, brain, and behavior. Brain Behav Evol 72:123-134.
105.
Shumway CA (2010): The evolution of complex brains and behaviors in African cichlid fishes. Curr Zool 56:144-156.
106.
Sneddon LU (2011): Cognition and welfare; in Brown C, Laland K, Krause J (eds): Fish Cognition and Behavior, ed 2. Oxford, Wiley-Blackwell, pp 405-434.
107.
Striedter GF (1991): Auditory, electrosensory and mechanosensory lateral line pathways through the forebrain in channel catfishes. J Comp Neurol 312:311-331.
108.
Striedter GF (1992): Phylogenetic changes in the connections of the lateral preglomerular nucleus in ostariophysan teleosts: a pluralistic view of brain evolution. Brain Behav Evol 39:329-357.
109.
Striedter GF, Northcutt RG (2006): Head size constrains forebrain development and evolution in ray-finned fishes. Evol Dev 8:215-222.
110.
Tebbich S, Bshary R, Grutter AS (2002): Cleaner fish Labroides dimidiatus recognize familiar clients. Anim Cogn 5:139-145.
111.
van Staaden MJ, Huber R, Kaufman LS, Liem KF (1995): Brain evolution in cichlids of the African Great Lakes: brain and body size, general patterns and evolutionary trends. Zoology 98:165-178.
112.
von der Emde G, Prechtl JC (1999): Anatomical connections of auditory and lateral line areas of the dorsal telencephalon (Dm) in the osteoglossomorph teleost, Gnathonemus petersii. Brain Res 818:355-367.
113.
Vonderschen K, Bleckmann H, Hofmann MH (2002): A direct projection from the cerebellum to the telencephalon in the goldfish, Carassius auratus. Neurosci Lett 320:37-40.
114.
Wai MSM, Lorke DE, Webb SE, Yew DT (2006): The pattern of c-fos activation in the CNS is related to behavior in the mudskipper, Periophthalmus cantonensis. Behav Brain Res 167:318-327
115.
Wullimann MF, Meyer DL (1993): Possible multiple evolution of indirect telencephalo-cerebellar pathways in teleosts: studies in Carassius auratus and Pantodon buchholzi. Cell Tissue Res 274:447-455.
116.
Xue H-G, Yang C-Y, Ito H (2003): Topographical projections to the nucleus prethalamicus from the cerebellum, optic tectum, and telencephalon in holocentrid teleosts. Brain Res 992:146-150.
117.
Yamamoto N, Ishikawa Y, Yoshimoto M, Xue H-G, Bahaxar N, Sawai N, Yang C-Y, Ozawa H, Ito H (2007): A new interpretation on the homology of the teleostean telencephalon based on hodology and a new eversion model. Brain Behav Evol 69:96-104.
118.
Yamamoto N, Ito H (2005): Fiber connections of the anterior preglomerular nucleus in cyprinids with notes on telencephalic connections of the preglomerular complex. J Comp Neurol 491:212-233.
119.
Yamamoto N, Ito H (2008): Visual, lateral line, and auditory ascending pathways to the dorsal telencephalic area through the rostrolateral region of the lateral preglomerular nucleus in cyprinids. J Comp Neurol 508:615-647.
120.
Yamane Y, Yoshimoto M, Ito H (1996): Area dorsalis pars lateralis of the telencephalon in a teleost (Sebastiscus marmoratus) can be divided into dorsal and ventral regions. Brain Behav Evol 48:338-349.
© 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel
2013
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.