Adult neurogenesis is a widespread phenomenon occurring in many species, including humans. The functional and therapeutic implications of this form of brain plasticity are now beginning to be realized. Comparative approaches to adult neurogenesis will yield important clues about brain repair. Here, we compare adult neurogenesis in birds and mammals. We review recent studies on the glial identity of stem cells that generate new neurons, the different modes of migration used by the newly generated neurons to reach their destinations, and how these systems respond to experimentally induced cell death. We integrate these findings to address how comparative analysis at the molecular level might be used for brain repair.

Keywords:
Birds, Mice, Adult neurogenesis, Regeneration, Stem cells
1.
Aberg, M.A.I., N.D. Aberg, H. Hedbacker, J. Oscarsson, and P.S. Eriksson (2000) Peripheral infusion of IGF-I selectively induces neurogenesis in the adult rat hippocampus. J. Neurosci., 20: 2896–2903.
2.
Altman, J. (1963) Autoradiographic investigation of cell proliferation in the brains of rats and cats. Anat. Rec., 145: 573–591.
3.
Altman, J. (1969) Autoradiographic and histological studies of postnatal neurogenesis. IV. Cell proliferation and migration in the anterior forebrain, with special reference to persisting neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb. J. Comp. Neurol., 137: 433–458.
4.
Altman, J., and S.A. Bayer (1990a) Mosaic organization of the hippocampal neuroepithelium and the multiple germinal sources of dentate granule cells. J. Comp. Neurol., 301: 325–342.
5.
Altman, J., and S.A. Bayer (1990b) Migration and distribution of two populations of hippocampal granule cell precursors during the perinatal and postnatal periods. J. Comp. Neurol., 301: 365–381.
6.
Altman, J., and G.D. Das (1965) Autoradiographic and histological evidence of postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis in rats. J. Comp. Neurol., 124: 319–336.
7.
Altman, J., and D.D. Gopal (1965) Post-natal origin of microneurones in the rat brain. Nature, 207: 953–956.
8.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., and J.R. Kirn (1997) Birth, migration, incorporation, and death of vocal control neurons in adult songbirds. J. Neurobiol., 33: 585–601.
9.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., and F. Nottebohm (1988) Migration of young neurons in adult avian brain. Nature, 335: 353–354.
10.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., J.M. García-Verdugo, A.S. Mateo, and H. Merchant-Larios (1998) Primary neural precursors and intermitotic nuclear migration in the ventricular zone of adult canaries. J. Neurosci., 18: 1020–1037.
11.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., J.M. García-Verdugo, and A.D. Tramontin (2001) A unified hypothesis on the lineage of neural stem cells. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 2: 287–293.
12.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., C.-Y. Ling, and W.S. Yu (1994) Contribution of neurons born during embryonic juvenile and adult life to the brain of adult canaries: Regional specificity and delayed birth of neurons in the song control nuclei. J. Comp. Neurol., 347: 233–248.
13.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., M. Theelen, and F. Nottebohm (1988) Mapping of radial glia and of a new cell type in adult canary brain. J. Neurosci., 8: 2707–2712.
14.
Alvarez-Buylla, A., M. Theelen, and F. Nottebohm (1990) Proliferation ‘hot spots’ in adult avian ventricular zone reveal radial cell division. Neuron, 5: 101–109.
15.
Anton, E.S., M.A. Marchionni, K.-F. Lee, and P. Rakic (1997) Role of GGF/neuregulin signaling in interactions between migrating neurons and radial glia in the developing cerebral cortex. Development, 124: 3501–3510.
16.
Barami, K., K. Iversen, H. Furneaux, and S.A. Goldman (1995) Hu protein as an early marker of neuronal phenotypic differentiation by subependymal zone cells of the adult songbird forebrain. J. Neurobiol., 28: 82–101.
17.
Benraiss, A., E. Chmielnicki, K. Lerner, D. Roh, and S.A. Goldman (2001) Adenoviral brain-derived neurotrophic factor induces both neostriatal and olfactory neuronal recruitment from endogenous progenitor cells in the adult forebrain. J. Neurosci., 21: 6718–6731.
18.
Calaora, V., G. Chazal, P.J. Nielsen, G. Rougon, and H. Moreau (1996) mCD24 expression in the developing mouse brain and in zones of secondary neurogenesis in the adult. Neuroscience, 73: 581–594.
19.
Calof, A.L., J.S. Mumm, P.C Rim, and J. Shou (1998) The neuronal stem cell of the olfactory epithelium. J. Neurobiol., 36: 190–205.
20.
Cameron, H.A., C.S. Wooley, B.S McEwen, and E. Gould (1993) Differentiation of newly born neurons and glia in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat. Neuroscience, 56: 337–344.
21.
Cayre, M., C. Strambi, P. Charpin, R. Augier, M.R. Meyer, J.S. Edwards, and A. Strambi (1996) Neurogenesis in adult insect mushroom bodies. J. Comp. Neurol., 371: 300–310.
22.
Cheng, T., N. Rodrigues, D. Dombkowski, S. Stier, and D.T. Scadden (2000a) Stem cell repopulation efficiency but not pool size is governed by p27(kip1). Nat. Med., 6: 1235–1240.
23.
Cheng, T., N. Rodrigues, H. Shen, Y. Yang, D. Dombkowski, M. Sykes, and D.T. Scadden (2000b) Hematopoetic stem cell quiescence maintained by p21cip1/waf1. Science, 287: 1804–1808.
24.
Chiasson BJ, V. Tropepe, C.M. Morshead, and D. van der Kooy (1999) Adult mammalian forebrain ependymal and subependymal cells demonstrate proliferative potential, but only subependymal cells have neural stem cell characteristics. J. Neurosci., 19: 4462–4471.
25.
Conover, J.C., F. Doetsch, J.M. García-Verdugo, N.W. Gale, G.D. Yancopoulos, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (2000) Disruption of Eph/ephrin signaling affects migration and proliferation in the adult subventricular zone. Nat. Neurosci., 3: 1091–1097.
26.
Coskun, V., and M.B. Luskin (2001) The expression pattern of the cell cycle inhibitor p19(INK4d) by progenitor cells of the rat embryonic telencephalon and neonatal anterior subventricular zone. J. Neurosci., 21: 3092–3103.
27.
Cotanche, D.A. (1999) Structural recovery from sound and aminoglycoside damage in the avian cochlea. Audiol. Neurootol., 4: 271–285.
28.
Cotsarelis, G., S-Z Cheng, G. Dong, T-T. Sun, and R.M. Lavkar (1989) Existence of slow cycling limbal epithelial basal cells that can be preferentially stimulated to proliferate: Implications on epithelial stem cells. Cell, 57: 201–209.
29.
Craig, C.G., V. Tropepe, C.M. Morshead, B.A. Reynolds, S. Weiss, and D. Van der Kooy (1996) In vivo growth factor expansion of endogenous subependymal neural precursor cell populations in the adult mouse brain. J. Neurosci., 16: 2649–2658.
30.
DiCicco-Bloom, E., N. Lu, J.E Pintar, and J. Zhang (1998) The PACAP ligand/receptor system regulates cerebral cortical neurogenesis. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 865: 274–289.
31.
Doetsch, F., and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1996) Network of tangential pathways for neuronal migration in adult mammalian brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93: 14895–14900.
32.
Doetsch, F., I. Caille, D.A. Lim, J.M García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1999b) Subventricular zone astrocytes are neural stem cells in the adult mammalian brain. Cell, 97: 703–716.
33.
Doetsch, F., J.M. García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1997) Cellular composition and three-dimensional organization of the subventricular germinal zone in the adult mammalian brain. J. Neurosci., 17: 5046–5061.
34.
Doetsch, F., J.M. García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1999a) Regeneration of a germinal layer in the adult mammalian brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 11619–11624.
35.
Doetsch, F., J.M. García-Verdugo, I. Caille, A. Alvarez-Buylla, M.V. Chao, and P. Casaccia-Bonnefil (2002) Lack of the cell cycle inhibitor p27Kip1 results in selective increase of transit amplifying cells for adult neurogenesis. J. Neurosci., 22: 2246–2254.
36.
Dutar, P., J.J. Pterozzino, H.M. Vu, M.F. Schmidt, and D.J. Perkel (2000) Slow synaptic inhibition mediated by metabotropic glutamate receptor activation of GIRK channels. J. Neurophysiol., 84: 2284–2290.
37.
Dutar, P., H.M. Vu, and D.J. Perkel (1998) Multiple cell types distinguished by physiological, pharmacological, and anatomic properties in nucleus HVc of the adult zebra finch. J. Neurophysiol., 80: 1828–1838.
38.
Dyer, M.A., and C.L. Cepko (2000) Control of Müller glial cell proliferation and activation following retinal injury. Nat. Neurosci., 3: 873–880.
39.
Dyer, M.A., and C.L. Cepko (2001) Regulating proliferation during retinal development. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 2: 333–342.
40.
Eckenhoff, M.F., and P. Rakic (1988) Nature and fate of proliferative cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus during the life span of the Rhesus monkey. J. Neurosci., 8: 2729–2747.
41.
Eriksson, P.S., E. Perfilieva, T. Björk-Eriksson, A.M. Alborn, C. Norborg, D.A. Peterson, and F.H. Gage (1998) Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nat. Med., 4: 1313–1317.
42.
Fallon, J., S. Reid, R. Kinyamu, I. Opole, R. Opole, J. Baratta, M. Korc, T.L. Endo, A. Duong, G. Nguyen, M. Karkehabadhi, D. Twardzik, and S. Loughlin (2000) In vivo induction of massive proliferation, directed migration, and differentiation of neural cells in the adult mammalian brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97: 14686–14691.
43.
Font, E., E. Desfilis, M. Perez-Cañellas, S. Alcantara, and J.M. García-Verdugo (1997) 3-Acetylpyridine-induced degeneration and regeneration in the adult lizard brain: A qualitative and quantitative analysis. Brain Res., 754: 245–259.
44.
Font, E., E. Desfilis, M.M. Pérez-Cañellas, and J.M. García-Verdugo (2001) Neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration in the adult reptilian brain. Brain Behav. Evol., 58: 276–295.
45.
Frederiksen, K., and R.D.G. McKay (1988) Proliferation and differentiation of rat neuroepithelial precursor cells in vivo. J. Neurosci., 8: 1144–1151.
46.
Gadisseux, J.F., P. Evrard, J.P. Misson, and V.S. Caviness (1989) Dynamic structure of the radial glial fiber system of the developing murine cerebral wall: An immunocytochemical analysis. Dev. Brain Res., 50: 55–67.
47.
Gage, F. (2000) Mammalian neural stem cells. Science, 287: 1433–1438.
48.
Gage, F., G. Kempermann, T.D. Palmer, D.A Peterson, and J. Ray (1998) Multipotent progenitor cells in the adult dentate gyrus. J. Neurobiol., 36: 249–266.
49.
Gaiano, N., J.S. Nye, and G. Fishell (2000) Radial glial identity is promoted by Notch1 signaling in the murine forebrain. Neuron, 26: 395–404.
50.
Ganguly, K., A.F. Schinder, S.T. Wong, and M. Poo (2001) GABA itself promotes the developmental switch of neuronal GABAergic responses from excitation to inhibition. Cell, 105: 521–532.
51.
García-Verdugo, J.-M., F. Doetsch, H. Wichterle, D.A. Lim, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1998) Architecture and cell types of the adult subventricular zone: In search of the stem cells. J. Neurobiol., 36: 234–248.
52.
Ghooray, G.T., and G.F. Martin (1993) Development of radial glia and astrocytes in the spinal cord of the North American opossum (Didelphis virginiana): An immunohistochemical study using anti-vimentin and anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein. Glia, 9: 1–9.
53.
Goldman, S.A. (1998) Adult neurogenesis: From canaries to the clinic. J. Neurobiol., 36: 267–286.
54.
Goldman, S.A., and F. Nottebohm (1983) Neuronal production, migration, and differentiation in a vocal control nucleus of the adult female canary brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 80: 2390–2394.
55.
Goldman, S.A., A. Zukhar, K. Barami, T. Mikawa, and D. Niedzwiecki (1996) Ependymal/subependymal zone cells of postnatal and adult songbird brain generate both neurons and nonneuronal siblings in vitro and in vivo. J. Neurobiol., 30: 505–520.
56.
Götz, M., A. Stoykova, and P. Gruss (1998) Pax6 controls radial glia differentiation in the cerebral cortex. Neuron, 21: 1031–1044.
57.
Gould, E., and H.A. Cameron (1996) Regulation of neuronal birth, migration and death in the rat dentate gyrus. Dev. Neurosci., 18: 22–35.
58.
Gould, E., and P. Tanapat (1997) Lesion-induced proliferation of neuronal progenitors in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat. Neuroscience, 80: 427–436.
59.
Gould, E., A. Beylin, P. Tanapat, A. Reeves, and T.J. Shors (1999c) Learning enhances adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal formation. Nat. Neurosci., 2: 203–205.
60.
Gould, E., B.S. McEwen, P. Tanapat, L.A.M. Galea, and E. Fuchs (1997) Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult tree shrew is regulated by psychosocial stress and NMDA receptor activation. J. Neurosci., 17: 2492–2498.
61.
Gould, E., A.J. Reeves, M. Fallah, P. Tanapat, C.G. Gross, and E. Fuchs (1999a) Hippocampal neurogenesis in adult Old World primates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 5263–5267.
62.
Gould, E., A.J. Reeves, M.S.A. Graziano, and C.G. Gross (1999b) Neurogenesis in the neocortex of adult primates. Science, 286: 548–552.
63.
Gray, G.E., and J.R. Sanes (1992) Lineage of radial glia in the chicken optic tectum. Development, 114: 271–283.
64.
Gray, G.E., J.C. Clover, J. Majors, and J.R. Sanes (1988) Radial arrangement of clonally related cells in the chicken optic tectum: Lineage analysis with a recombinant retrovirus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85: 7356–7360.
65.
Gray, G.E., S.M. Leber, and J.R. Sanes (1990) Migratory patterns of clonally related cells in the developing central nervous system. Experientia, 46: 929–940.
66.
Gritti, A., P. Frolichsthal-Schoeller, R. Galli, E.A. Parati, L. Cova, S.F. Pagano, C.R. Bjornson, and A.L. Vescovi (1999) Epidermal and fibroblast growth factors behave as mitogenic regulators for a single multipotent stem cell-like population from the subventricular region of the adult mouse forebrain. J. Neurosci., 19: 3287–3297.
67.
Gritti, A., E.A. Parati, L. Cova, P. Frolichsthal, R. Galii, E. Wanke, L. Faravelli, D.J. Morassutti, F. Roisen, D.D. Nickel, and A.I. Vescovi (1996) Multipotential stem cells from the adult mouse brain proliferate and self-renew in response to basic fibroblast growth factor. J. Neurosci., 16: 1091–1100.
68.
Gross, C.G. (2000) Neurogenesis in the adult brain: Death of a dogma. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 1: 67–73.
69.
Hartfuss, E., R. Galli, N. Heintz, and M. Götz (2001) Characterization of CNS precursor subtypes and radial glia. Dev. Biol., 229: 15–30.
70.
Hatten, M.E. (1993) The role of migration in central nervous system neuronal development. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 3: 38–44.
71.
Hatten, M.E., and C.A. Mason (1990) Mechanism of glial-guided neuronal migration in vitro and in vivo. Experientia, 46: 907–916.
72.
Herrera, D.G., J.M. García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1999) Adult-derived neural precursors transplanted into multiple regions in the adult brain. Ann. Neurol., 46: 867–877.
73.
Holland, E.C., and H.E. Varmus (1998) Basic fibroblast growth factor induces cell migration and proliferation after glia-specific gene transfer in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95: 1218–1223.
74.
Holzenberger, M., E.D. Jarvis, C. Chong, M. Grossman, F. Nottebohm, and C. Scharff (1997) Selective expression of insulin-like growth factor II in the songbird brain. J. Neurosci., 7: 6974–6987.
75.
Horner, P.J., and F.H. Gage (2000) Regenerating the damaged central nervous system. Nature, 407: 963–970.
76.
Hu, H. (1999) Chemorepulsion of neuronal migration by Slit2 in the developing mammalian forebrain. Neuron, 23: 703–711.
77.
Hunter, K.E., and M.E. Hatten (1995) Radial glial cell transformation to astrocytes is bidirectional: Regulation by a diffusible factor in embryonic forebrain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92: 2061–2065.
78.
Jacobson, M. (1991) Developmental Neurobiology. Plenum Press, New York.
79.
Jankovski, A., and C. Sotelo (1996) Subventricular zone-olfactory bulb migratory pathway in the adult mouse: Cellular composition and specificity as determined by heterochronic and heterotopic transplantation. J. Comp. Neurol., 371: 376–396.
80.
Jankovski, A., C. Garcia, E. Soriano, and C. Sotelo (1998) Proliferation, migration and differentiation of neuronal progenitor cells in the adult mouse subventricular zone surgically separated from its olfactory bulb. Eur. J. Neurosci., 10: 3853–3868.
81.
Jiang, J., J. McMurty, D. Niedwiecki, and S.A. Goldman (1998) Insulin-like growth factor-1 is a radial cell-associated neurotrophin that promotes neuronal recruitment from the adult songbird ependyma/subependyma. J. Neurobiol., 36: 1–15.
82.
Johansson, C.B., S. Momma, D.L. Clarke, M. Risling, U. Lendahl, and J. Frisén (1999) Identification of a neural stem cell in the adult mammalian central nervous system. Cell, 96: 25–34.
83.
Kaplan, M.S. (1981) Neurogenesis in the 3-month-old rat visual cortex. J. Comp. Neurol., 195: 323–338.
84.
Kirn, J.R., and F. Nottebohm (1993) Direct evidence for loss and replacement of projection neurons in adult canary brain. J. Neurosci., 13: 1654–1663.
85.
Kirn, J.R., A. Alvarez-Buylla, and F. Nottebohm (1991) Production and survival of projection neurons in the high vocal center of adult male canaries. J. Neurosci., 11: 1756–1762.
86.
Kirn, J.R., Y. Fishman, K. Sasportas, A. Alvarez-Buylla, and F. Nottebohm (1999) Fate of new neurons in adult canary high vocal center during the first 30 days after their formation. J. Comp. Neurol., 411: 487–494.
87.
Kirn, J., B. O’Loughlin, S. Kasparian, and F. Nottebohm (1994) Cell death and neuronal recruitment in the high vocal center of adult male canaries are temporally related to changes in song. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91: 7844–7848.
88.
Kirschenbaum, B., F. Doetsch, C. Lois, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1999) Adult subventricular zone neuronal precursors continue to proliferate and migrate in the absence of the olfactory bulb. J. Neurosci., 19: 2171–2180.
89.
Kondo, T., and M. Raff (2000) Oligodendrocyte precursor cells reprogrammed to become multipotential CNS stem cells. Science, 289: 1754–1757.
90.
Kornack, D.R., and P. Rakic (1999) Continuation of neurogenesis in the hippocampus of the adult macaque monkey. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 5768–5773.
91.
Kornack, D.R., and P. Rakic (2001) The generation, migration, and differentiation of olfactory neurons in the adult primate brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 98: 4752–4757.
92.
Kornack, D.R. and P. Rakic (2001b) Cell proliferation without neurogenesis in adult primate neocortex. Science, 294: 2127–2130.
93.
Kubota, M., and I. Taniguchi (1998) Electrophysiological characteristics of classes of neurons in the HVc of the zebra finch. J. Neurophysiol., 80: 914–923.
94.
Kuhn, H.G., J. Winkler, G. Kempermann, L.J. Thal, and F.H. Gage (1997) Epidermal growth factor and fibroblast growth factor-2 have different effects on neural progenitors in the adult rat brain. J. Neurosci., 17: 5820–5829.
95.
Laywell, E.D., P. Rakic, V.G. Kukekov, E.C. Holland, and D.A. Steindler (2000) Identification of a multipotent astrocytic stem cell in the immature and adult mouse brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97: 13883–13888.
96.
Leavitt, B.R., C.S. Hernit-Grant, and J.D. Macklis (1999) Mature astrocytes transform into transitional radial glia within adult mouse neocortex that supports directed migration of transplanted immature neurons. Exp. Neurol., 157: 43–57.
97.
Levine, E.M., J. Close, M. Fero, A. Ostrovsky, and T.A. Reh (2000) p27 regulates cell cycle withdrawal of late multipotent progenitor cells in the mammalian retina. Dev. Biol., 219: 299–314.
98.
Levison, S.W., and J.E. Goldman (1993) Both oligodendrocytes and astrocytes develop from progenitors in the subventricular zone of postnatal rat forebrain. Neuron, 10: 201–212.
99.
Levitt, P.R., M.L.Cooper, and P. Rakic (1981) Coexistence of neuronal and glial precursor cells in the cerebral ventricular zone of the fetal monkey: An ultrastructural immunoperoxidase analysis. J. Neurosci., 1: 27–39.
100.
Lim, D.A., G.J. Fishell, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1997) Postnatal mouse subventricular zone neuronal precursors can migrate and differentiate within multiple levels of the developing neuraxis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94: 14832–14836.
101.
Lim, D.A., A.D. Tramontin, J.M. Trevejo, D.G. Herrera, J.M. García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (2000) Noggin antagonizes BMP signaling to create a niche for adult neurogenesis. Neuron, 28: 713–726.
102.
Liu, X.S., S. Tilwalli, G. Ye, P.A. Lio, J.F. Pasternak, and B.L. Trommer (2000) Morphologic and electrophysiologic maturation in developing dentate gyrus granule cells. Brain Res., 856: 202–212.
103.
Lois, C., and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1994) Long-distance neuronal migration in the adult mammalian brain. Science, 264: 1145–1148.
104.
Lois, C., J.M. García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1996) Chain migration of neuronal precursors. Science, 271: 978–981.
105.
Lowenheim, H., D.N. Furness, J. Kil, C. Zinn, K. Gultig, M.L. Fero, D. Frost, A.W. Gummer, J.M. Roberts, E.W. Rubel, C.M. Hackney, and H.P. Zenner (1999) Gene disruption of p27(Kip1) allows cell proliferation in the postnatal and adult organ of Corti. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96: 4084–4088.
106.
Luskin, M.B. (1993) Restricted proliferation and migration of postnatally generated neurons derived from the forebrain subventricular zone. Neuron, 11: 173–189.
107.
Madison, R., and J.D. Macklis (1993) Noninvasively induced degeneration of neocortical pyramidal neurons in vivo: Selective targeting by laser activation of retrogradely transported photolytic chromophore. Exp. Neurol., 121: 153–159.
108.
Magavi, S.S., B.R. Leavitt, and J.D. Macklis (2000) Induction of neurogenesis in the neocortex of adult mice. Nature, 405: 951–955.
109.
Malatesta, P., E. Hartfuss, and M. Götz (2000) Isolation of radial glial cells by fluorescent-activated cell sorting reveals a neuronal lineage. Development, 127: 5253–5263.
110.
Marcus, R.C., C.L. Delaney, and S.S. Easter (1999) Neurogenesis in the visual system of embryonic and adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). Vis. Neurosci., 16: 417–424.
111.
Markakis, E.A., and F. Gage (1999) Adult-generated neurons in the dentate gyrus send axonal projections to field CA3 and are surrounded by synaptic vesicles. J. Comp. Neurol., 406: 449–460.
112.
Miyata, T., A. Kawaguchi, H. Okano, and M. Ogawa (2001) Asymmetric inheritance of radial glial fibers by cortical neurons. Neuron, 31: 727–741.
113.
Miyazawa, K., T. Himi, V. Garcia, H. Yamagishi, S. Sato, and Y. Ishizaki (2000) A role for p27/Kip1 in the control of cerebellar granule cell precursor proliferation. J. Neurosci., 20: 5756–5763.
114.
Morest, D.K. (1970) A study of neurogenesis in the forebrain of opossum pouch young. Z. Anat. Entwicklungsgesch., 130: 265–305.
115.
Morshead, C.M., and D. Van der Kooy (1992) Postmitotic death is the fate of constitutively proliferating cells in the subependymal layer of the adult mouse brain. J. Neurosci., 12: 249–256.
116.
Morshead, C.M., and D. Van der Kooy (2001) A new ‘spin’ on neural stem cells? Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 11: 59–65.
117.
Morshead, C.M., B.A. Reynolds, C.G. Craig, M.W. McBurney, W.A. Staines, D. Morassutti, S. Weiss, and D. Van der Kooy (1994) Neural stem cells in the adult mammalian forebrain: A relatively quiescent subpopulation of subependymal cells. Neuron, 13: 1071–1082.
118.
Nadarajah, B, J.E. Brunstrom, J. Grutzendler, R.O. Wong, and A.L. Pearlman (2001) Two modes of radial migration in early development of the cerebral cortex. Nat. Neurosci., 4: 143–150.
119.
Nait-Oumesmar, B., L. Decker, F. Lachapelle, V. Avellana-Adalid, C. Bachelin, and A.B. Van Evercooren (1999) Progenitor cells of the adult mouse subventricular zone proliferate, migrate and differentiate into oligodendrocytes after demyelination. Eur. J. Neurosci., 11: 4357–4366.
120.
Nieto, M., C. Schuurmans, O. Britz, and F. Guillemot (2001) Neural bHLH genes control the neuronal versus glial fate decision in cortical progenitors. Neuron, 29: 401–413.
121.
Noctor, S.C., A.C. Flint, T.A. Weissmann, R.S. Dammerman, and A.R. Kriegstein (2001) Neurons derived from radial cells establish radial units in neocortex. Nature, 109: 714–720.
122.
Nottebohm, F., B. O’Loughlin, K. Gould, K. Yohay, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1994) The life span of new neurons in a song control nucleus of the adult canary brain depends on time of year when these cells are born. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91: 7849–7853.
123.
Nowakowski, R.S., and N.L. Hayes (2000) New neurons: Extraordinary evidence or extraordinary conclusion? Science, 288: 771a.
124.
Ohnuma, S., A. Philpott, K. Wang, C.E. Holt, and W.A. Harris (1999) p27Xic1, a Cdk inhibitor, promotes the determination of glial cells in Xenopus retina. Cell, 99: 499–510.
125.
Palmer T.D., E.A. Markakis, A.R. Willhoite, F. Safar, and F.H. Gage (1999) Fibroblast growth factor-2 activates a latent neurogenic program in neural stem cells from diverse regions of the adult CNS. J. Neurosci., 19: 8487–8497.
126.
Palmer T.D., J. Ray, and F.H. Gage (1995) FGF-2-responsive neuronal progenitors reside in proliferative and quiescent regions of the adult rodent brain. Mol. Cell. Neurosci., 6: 74–86.
127.
Parnavelas, J. (2000) The origin and migration of cortical neurones: New vistas. Trends Neurosci., 23: 126–131.
128.
Patapoutian, A., and L.F. Reichardt (2000) Roles of Wnt proteins in neural development and maintenance. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 10: 392–399.
129.
Paton, J.A., G.D. Burd, and F. Nottebohm (1986) New neurons in an adult brain: Plasticity in an auditory-motor nucleus. In The Biology of Change in Otolaryngology (ed. by R.W. Ruben, T.R. van der Water and E.W. Rubel), Elsevier Biomed., Amsterdam, pp. 201–210.
130.
Pencea V., K.D. Bingaman, L.J. Freedman, and M.B. Luskin (2001a) Neurogenesis in the subventricular zone and rostral migratory stream of the neonatal and adult primate forebrain. Exp. Neurol., 172: 1–16.
131.
Pencea, V., K.D. Bingaman, S.J. Wiegand, and M.B. Luskin (2001b) Infusion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor into the lateral ventricle of the adult rat leads to new neurons in the parenchyma of the striatum, septum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. J. Neurosci., 21: 706–717.
132.
Peretto, P., A. Merighi, A. Fasolo, and L. Bonfanti (1997) Glial tubes in the rostral migratory stream of the adult rat. Brain Res. Bull., 42: 9–21.
133.
Petreanu, L.T., and A. Alvarez-Buylla (2000) An early wave of cell death of newly generated granule neurons in the adult mouse olfactory bulb. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 26: 1610.
134.
Polenov, A.L., and V.K. Chetverukhin (1993) Ultrastructural radioautographic analysis of neurogenesis in the hypothalamus of the adult frog, Rana temporaria, with special reference to physiological regeneration of the preoptic nucleus. II. Types of neuronal cells produced. Cell Tiss. Res., 271: 351–362.
135.
Potten, C.S., and R.J. Morris (1988) Epithelial stem cells in vivo. J. Cell Sci., 10: 45–62.
136.
Privat, A., and C.P. Leblond (1972) The subependymal layer and neighboring region in the brain of the young rat. J. Comp. Neurol., 146: 277–302.
137.
Qian, X., S.K. Goderie, Q. Shen, J.H. Stern, and S. Temple (1998) Intrinsic programs of patterned cell lineages in isolated vertebrate CNS ventricular zone cells. Development, 125: 3143–3152.
138.
Qian, X., Q. Shen, S.K. Goderie, W. He, A. Capela, A.A. Davis, and S. Temple (2000) Timing of CNS cell generation: A programmed sequence of neuron and glial cell production from isolated murine cortical stem cells. Neuron, 28: 69–80.
139.
Rakic, P. (1972) Mode of cell migration to the superficial layers of fetal monkey neocortex. J. Comp. Neurol., 145: 61–84.
140.
Rakic, P. (1985) Limits of neurogenesis in primates. Science, 227: 1054–1056.
141.
Rakic, P. (1988) Specification of cerebral cortical areas. Science, 241: 170–176.
142.
Rakic, P. (1995) Radial versus tangential migration of neuronal clones in the developing cerebral cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92: 11323–11327.
143.
Reh, T.A., and A.J. Fischer (2001) Stem cells in the vertebrate retina. Brain Behav. Evol., 58: 296–305
144.
Reynolds, B., and S. Weiss (1992) Generation of neurons and astrocytes from isolated cells of the adult mammalian central nervous system. Science, 255: 1707–1710.
145.
Rietze, R., P. Poulin, and S. Weiss (2000) Mitotically active cells that generate neurons and astrocytes are present in multiple regions of the adult mouse hippocampus. J. Comp Neurol., 424: 397–408.
146.
Rietze, R.L., H. Valcanis, G.F. Brooker, T. Thomas, A.K. Voss, and P.F. Bartlett (2001) Purification of a pluripotent neural stem cell from the adult mouse brain. Nature, 412: 736–739.
147.
Scharff, C., J.M. García-Verdugo, F. Doetsch, M. Grossman, A. Mateo, F. Nottebohm, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1998) Large network of tangential pathways for chain migration in adult songbirds. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 24: 1189.
148.
Scharff, C., J.R Kirn, M.R. Grossmann, J.D. Macklis, and F. Nottebohm (2000) Targeted neuronal death affects neuronal replacement and vocal behavior in adult songbirds. Neuron, 25: 481–492.
149.
Schmechel, D.E., and P. Rakic (1979a) A Golgi study of radial glia cells in developing monkey telencephalon: Morphogenesis and transformation into astrocytes. Anat. Embryol., 156: 115–152.
150.
Schmechel, D.E., and P. Rakic (1979b) Arrested proliferation of radial glial cells during midgestation in rhesus monkey. Nature, 277: 303–305.
151.
Schmidt, M., and S. Harzsch (2000) Comparative analysis of neurogenesis in the central olfactory pathway of adult decapod crustaceans by in vivo BrdU labeling. Biol. Bull., 196: 127–136.
152.
Seri, B., J.M. García-Verdugo, B.S. McEwen, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (2001) Astrocytes give rise to new neurons in the adult mammalian hippocampus. J. Neurosci., 21: 7153–7160.
153.
Sheen, V.L., and J.D. Macklis (1994) Apoptotic mechanisms in targeted neuronal cell death by chromophore-activated photolysis. Exp. Neurol., 130: 67–81.
154.
Shihabuddin, L.S., P.J. Horner, J. Ray, and F.H. Gage (2000) Adult spinal cord stem cells generate neurons after transplantation in the adult dentate gyrus. J. Neurosci., 20: 8727–8735.
155.
Skogh, C., C. Eriksson, M. Kokaia, X.C. Meijer, L.U. Wahlberg, K. Wictorin, and K. Campbell (2001) Generation of regionally specified neurons in expanded glial cultures derived from the mouse and human lateral ganglionic eminence. Mol. Cell. Neurosci., 17: 811–820.
156.
Smalley, M.J., and T.C. Dale (1999) Wnt signalling in mammalian development and cancer. Canc. Metast. Rev., 18: 215–230.
157.
Smart, I. (1961) The subependymal layer of the mouse brain and its cell production as shown by radioautography after thymidine-H3 injection. J. Comp. Neurol., 116: 325–348.
158.
Smolders, J.W. (1999) Functional recovery in the avian ear after hair cell regeneration. Audiol. Neurootol., 4: 286–302.
159.
Soriano, E., R.M. Alvarado-Mallart, N. Dumesnil, J.A. Del Rio, and C. Sotelo (1997) Cajal-Retzius cells regulate the radial glia phenotype in the adult and developing cerebellum and alter granule cell migration. Neuron, 18: 563–577.
160.
Sprangrude, G.J., S. Heimfeld, and I.L. Weissman (1988) Purification and characterization of mouse hematopoetic stem cells. Science, 241: 58–72.
161.
Stanfield, B.B., and J.E. Trice (1988) Evidence that granule cells generated in the dentate gyrus of adult rats extend axonal projections. Exp. Brain Res., 72: 399–406.
162.
Suhonen, J.O., D.A. Peterson, J. Ray, and F.H. Gage (1996) Differentiation of adult hippocampus-derived progenitors into olfactory neurons in vivo. Nature, 383: 624–627.
163.
Sun, Y., M. Nadal-Vicens, S. Misono, M.Z. Lin, A. Zubiaga, X. Hua, G. Fan, and M.E. Greenberg (2001) Neurogenin promotes neurogenesis and inhibits glial differentiation by independent mechanisms. Cell, 104: 365–376.
164.
Temple, S. (2001) Stem cell plasticity: Building the brain of our dreams. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 2: 513–520.
165.
Tropepe, V., Craig, C.G., C.M. Morshead, and D. Van der Kooy (1997) Transforming growth factor-alpha null and senescent mice show decreased neural progenitor cell proliferation in the forebrain subependyma. J. Neurosci., 17: 7850–7859.
166.
van Lookeren Campagne, M., and R. Gill (1998) Tumor-suppressor p53 is expressed in proliferating and newly formed neurons of the embryonic and postnatal rat brain: Comparison with expression of the cell cycle regulators p21 Waf1/Cip1, p27Kip1, p57Kip2, p16Ink4a, cyclin G1, and the proto-oncogene Bax. J. Comp. Neurol., 397: 181–198.
167.
Voigt, T. (1989) Development of glial cells in the cerebral wall of ferrets: Direct tracing of their transformation from radial glia into astrocytes. J. Comp. Neurol., 289: 74–88.
168.
Wang, S., B.W. Scott, and M. Wojtowicz (2000) Heterogenous properties of dentate granule neurons in the adult rat. J. Neurobiol., 42: 248–257.
169.
Wechsler-Reya, R.J., and M.P. Scott (1999) Control of neuronal precursor proliferation in the cerebellum by Sonic Hedgehog. Neuron, 22: 103–114.
170.
Weinstein, D.E., P. Burrola, and T.J. Kilpatrick (1996) Increased proliferation of precursor cells in the adult rat brain after targeted lesioning. Brain Res., 743: 11–16.
171.
Weiss, S., C. Dunne, J. Hewson, C. Wohl, M. Wheatley, A.C. Peterson, and B.A. Reynolds (1996) Multipotent CNS stem cells are present in the adult mammalian spinal cord and ventricular neuroaxis. J. Neurosci., 16: 7599–7609.
172.
Wichterle, H., J.M. García-Verdugo, and A. Alvarez-Buylla (1997) Direct evidence for homotypic, glia-independent neuronal migration. Neuron, 18: 779–791.
173.
Winkler, C., R.A. Fricker, M.A. Gates, M. Olsson, J.P. Hammang, M.K. Carpenter, and A. Björklund (1998) Incorporation and glial differentiation of mouse EGF-responsive neural progenitor cells after transplantation into the embryonic rat brain. Mol. Cell. Neurosci., 11: 99–116.
174.
Yoshimura, S., Y. Takagi, J. Harada, T. Teramoto, S.S. Thomas, C. Waeber, J.C. Bakowska, X.O. Breakefield, and M.A. Moskowitz (2001) FGF-2 regulation of neurogenesis in adult hippocampus after brain injury. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 98: 5874–5879.
175.
Zigova, T., V. Pencea, R. Betarbet, S.J. Wiegand, C. Alexander, R.A. Bakay, and M.B. Luskin (1998) Neuronal progenitor cells of the neonatal subventricular zone differentiate and disperse following transplantation into the adult rat striatum. Cell Transplant., 7: 137–156.
176.
Zupanc, G.K.H. (2001) Adult neurogenesis and neuronal regeneration in the central nervous system of teleost fish. Brain Behav. Evol., 58: 250–275.
© 2002 S. Karger AG, Basel
2002
Copyright / Drug Dosage / Disclaimer
Copyright: All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be translated into other languages, reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, microcopying, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug.
Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.
You do not currently have access to this content.